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ousB Plans 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



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CONTENTS. 

Accidents by Shafting, to prevent 92 

Accidents from Running Machinery, prevention of 89 

Adjustable Railway Car, an 116 

Alcohol, quantity of in water 50 

Alloy, a new 26 

Alloys and Solders 27 

Altitude Above the Sea-level of various places in the United States. 424 

Aluminum, how to solder 368 

American Cut Spikes, number of in one pound 337 

American Ensigns, dimensions of 39 

American Nails, number of in one pound 337 

American Steamers, fast .8 

Amount of Paint Required for a Given Surface 510 

Amount of Water in a Pipe, to calculate 322 

" Ancient " Winters 559 

Annealing, points on 213 

Annual Ring in Trees, the 419 

Anti-friction Grease 189 

Apprentices, points for 301 

Architects, notes on the law affecting 442 

Architects, points for 420, 421 

Area of Circle, how to find 5 14 

Areas of Circles 351 

Armor Plates, tests of 215 

Artesian Wells, valuable 346-348 

Ash Sifter, a home-made 389 

Atlantic Steamers, the new. *- 188-189 

Automatic Sprinklers, care of 129 

Avoirdupois Weight 356 

Axle Bearings, parchment for „ 49 



Babbitt Metal, composition of 369 

Ball, how to turn a 209 

Bank of England Doors, the 560 

3 



4 

Barn, plans for a commodious . . 508 

Barrels, how made 234 

Basswood Moldings, how made 445 

Beautiful and Convenient Cottage, plans for 499 

Beautiful Village Residence, plans for 505 

Bell Time on Shipboard 575 

Belts, amount of horse-power transmitted by 120-121 

Belts, to prevent from slipping of 322 

Belts, how to calculate speed of 332 

Belting Shafting at Right Angles 306 

Bell Ropes, new style of 177 

Bells, how made 114, 115 

Benefit of Small Timbers 343 

Bessemer Process the, real inventor of 220 

Big Belts and Fly Wheels 267-270 

Black Paint, for out-of-door work 407 

Blowing Off Under Pressure 152 

Boats Drawn by a Locomotive 50 

Boiler, seeing inside a no 

Boilers, calking 124-126 

Boilers, treatment of new 66 

Boiler Plates, how proved 78 

Boiler Plates, how to test 166 

Boilers, to stop foaming in 127, 144 

Boiler Explosions in Germany 129 

Boiler Tubes, protection to 132 

Boilers, foaming in 144 

Boilers, incrustation of 146 

Boilers, how to prevent accidents to 147 

Boilers, principles of construction 148, 149 

Boiler Incrustation, analysis of .- 155 

Boiler Tubes, cleanmg 155 

Boilers, mistakes in designing 158 

Boilers, how to test 162 

Boilers, scale in 163 

Boilers, ignorance about 167 

Boiler Tubes, protection to 172 

Boilers, the working strength of 182 

Boilers, interesting facts about. 184-186 

Boiler, a new type of 186 

Boiler Rivets, number of in a lOo-pound keg , . . . 336 

Boiler Shells and Flues, to test strength of 332 

Boiling, process of .« - . 145 



5 

Bolts, weight of round-headed per loc 204 

Bolts, weight of, including nuts, per too 207 

Brass Castings, how to make hard and ductile 27 

Brass, how to lacquer 219 

Brass and its Treatment 323, 324 

Brass, how to clean 155 

Brass, tinning acid for 374 

Brass, to solder easily 374 

Brass, weight of sheets of 196, 197 

Brakeman, the passenger (poem) 99 

Breaking Strain of Various Metals 282 

Bridge, a great -- 292 

Brick, points about 514 

Bricks, effect of temperature'on 432 

Bricks, number required to construct a building 439 

Bricks from Refuse of Stone Quarries 337 

Broken Belting, how to mend 25 

Bronze, how to render malleable 33 

Building Contracts, points regarding 507 

Building Blocks Made of Corn Cobs 445 

Buildings, ventilation of 451 

Builders, points for 411-413 

Buena Vista Cottage, plan for 537 

Burn, to relieve instantly 135 



Carcimine, how to prepare 445 

Calking 314 

Camel's-Hair Belting 289 

Canadian Cottage, plans for 531 

Canal across Italy, a 116 

Car Wheel, cost of a loi 

Castings, cement for blow-holes in 135 

Cast Iron, to tin 134 

Cast Iron Pipes, weight of 410 

Cast Iron Piles, effect of sea water on 210 

Cast Iron Columns, safe loads for 362-364 

Cast Iron, weight of per lineal foot 205 

Cast Iron Columns, weight of per foot 353 

Cast Iron Ball, to find weight of 282 

Cast Steel, the secret of 274 

Castings, shrinkage of 555 

Carpenters, number of in London, Paris and Berlin 337 



6 

Cathedrals, dimensions of the greatest 44I 

Cements, useful 134 

Cement, a reliable 446 

Cement for Machinery Foundations 344 

Cement for Joints ot Granite Monuments 394 

Cement, a new 284 

Cement, to mend iron pots and pans 267 

Celluloid Sheathing 135 

Centigrade and Metrical Equivalents 283 

Cheap House for small farm or village 487 

Cheap Horse Barn, plans for 509 

Chicago Auditorium, description of 416-418 

Chicago Cottage, plans for 517 

Chinese Language, extent of 562 

Chinese Well-drilling 218 

Chinese Cash 414 

Chimney, how to build so that it will draw 369 

Chimneys, the sweating of 458 

Church for Village or Country, plans for 507 

Cinders, how to remove from the eye 286 

Circular Boiler Heads, weight of 335 

Circles, areas of 351 

Circles, circumferences of 352 

Circumference of Circle, how to find 514 

** City of New York," engines of 45 

Clock, a self winding 307 

Coal, amount used by locomotives per mile run 86 

Coal, when first used on American railroads . 49 

Coal, effect of sun and rain upon 53 

Coal, wet, as heat generator 128 

Coal, cost of to railroads 187 

Coal, amount used in Canada, yearly 208 

Coaling Ships in the West Indies 384 

Coating iron with lead 372 

Coke and soft coal mixed 218 

Cold Solder, how to make 370 

Cold Water Supply Pipes 431-434 

Colossal stick of timber 457 

Colors, suggestions for 441 

Combination Barn, plans for sio* 

Common Names of Chemical Substances 44 

Compass, reason for variation of 227 

Combustion in Coal, how produced 291 



7 

' Conical Spiral Springs, how to make 84 

Convenient Eight Room Dwelling, plans for 496 

Convenient and Cheap Cottage, plans for 483 

Copper, how to tin 374 

Copper, effect of heat on 336 

Copper, weight of sheets of 196, 197 

Copper Wire, to find tensile strength of 316 

Corn Crib, to find contents of 509 

Cost of Railroad Travel 54 

Cost of Living in China 367 

Counter Boring, tool for 311 

Cubic Measure 355 

Cubic Foot, equivalent of 355 

Crushing and Tensile Strength of Natural and Artificial Stone 365 

' Crushing Strength of Cast Iron 316 

Cylindrical Cisterns, capacity of .T 292 

Cylinder, ingenious way of cooling 100 

Crystallized Tin Plate 373 

Dam, largest in the world 559 

Decimal Equivalents 30 

Deep Wells 562 

Deep Soundings near the Friendly Islands 414 

Deoxidized Copper 217 

Design for Farm or Village House 498 

Dies, metal-working, and their uses 326-332 

Dimensions of One Acre 501 

Drawing Instrument, a novel 403 

Drill Lubricator, to make 189 

Dry Rot In Timber 429 

Dynamite Cruiser Vesuvius iii, 112 

Earth's Motion, proof of 227 

Eave Troughs, how to make 379 

Eight Room House, plans for 488 

Electric Lights in Germany 458 

Electric Light, largest in the world 476 

Electric Street Railway, cost of 228 

Electric Light, figures 228 

Electric Hand Lantern 242 

Electric Railroad, longest in the country 282 



Electric Lighting in Factories 286 

Electric Railway for Japan 325 

Electrical Railway, a new form of 135 

Electricity from Coal 208 

Electricity, advance of 208 

Electricity, development of 211 

Electro-plating with Nickel 208 

Electro-plating with Aluminum 208 

Elbow Angles, table of heights of 380, 381 

Emery Wheel, how to true 121 

Emery Wheels, value of 273 

Endless Tin Plates 373 

England's Big Guns , 296 

English Language, extent of 562 

Engines of the S. S. " City of New York " 45 

Engine, to find horse-power of 92, 142, 143 

Engines, manipulation of new 105 

Engines, comparative economy of high and low speed 107 

Engine's Speed, how to increase without changing governor 133 

Engineers, a warning to ^ 88 

Engineers, rules for 90 

Engineers, valuable instruction for 95 

Engineers, valuable information for 97 

Engineers, points for 53 

Engineer, the (poem) 98 

Engineers, qualifications of 103 

Eiffel Tower, description of 437 

Estimates of Materials 510 

Estimating Cost of Plastering and Stucco Work 413, 414 

Estrade High Speed Locomotives 102 

Evaporation of Locomotive Boiler 62 

Experiments with a Locomotive 87 

Expansion of Substances by Heat 206 

Explosion of a Domestic Hot Water Boiler 39I-S94 

Explosion, explanation of 138 

Explosive, the most terrible known 34 

Exterior Stains, how to test 444 



Farm or Village House, design for 481 

Face, how to cast a 284 

Facts About Presidents 23 

Feet, decimal equivalents of 442 



9 

P'ernwood Cottage, plans for 535 

Ferrules, how to draw 305 

Feed Water Heater, explanation of 156 

Filter, a cheap 368 

Fireman, rules for the 140, 141 

Fire-proofing Woodwork 440 

Fire, why water puts out 79 

Five Room Cottage, plans for - 482 

i'ires in Buildings, some causes of 138 

Fireman at Sea, the 169-172 

jFlagstone, an immense. 116 

flange Joint, how to make strong 122 

Flaring Articles with Round Corners 376-379 

Flaring Oval Articles, pattern for ^ . . 375, 376 

Flat Rolled Iron, weights of per lineal foot 198-203 

Flexible Glass, how made 237 

Floors, painting and varnishing 456 

I'loors, how to wax 338 

Floor Measure 508 

|loor, how to make a good 425, 426 

oaming in Boilers, to prevent 127 

iorge, steel 213 

forests of the United States, the 423 

forth Bridge, description of the new 558 

tour-piece Elbow, how to describe a pattern for 383, 384 

French Language, extent of 562 

irench Cubic or Solid Measure 355 

^ench Long Measure , 358 

irictlon in Machinery, to lessen 189 

Srench Square Measure o 357 

Irench Weights 356 

frosted Steel, to prepare 53 

Sfosted Glass , 448 

uel, the management of 174 

iiel Gas vs. Natural Gas 130 

uel, heating power of 211 

Uel, table of saving * 141 

lunnel Marks of the Principal Atlantic and Transatlantic Steam- 

|ship Lines 574 

^rnace Flues, safe working pressure •Si 

naces, facts about 461, 462 



lO 

Gamboge, how prepared 562 

Gas, amount of derived from coal 297 

Gas for Locomotives 165 

Gas Leakage, how to detect it 575 

Germany, labor statistics of 208 

German Language, extent of 562 

German Locomotives, number of 79 

Gearing, notes on 91 

Gearing, high speed 94 

Glass, how to unite to metal 135 

Glass Cutting by Electricity ' 296 

Glass, to perforate 289 

Glass, how to puncture 53 

Glue for Damp Places 426 

Glue, points on the use of 436 

Glue Paint, for kitchen floor 436 

Glue, moisture resisting 322 

Government Metal Tests 180 

Government Gun Bronze 180 

Granite, crushing strength of 316 

Granite, how to polish 342 

Graphite, use of in steamfitting 128 

Grindstone Quarries in the Bay of Fundy 344 

Grindstones, how to find the weight of 423 

Growth of the United States 557, 558 



Hand-hole Plates j 45 

Hardware in Havana ; 373 

Handsome and Commodious Residence, plans for 527 

Handsome Cottage, plans for 528 

Hay Measure 506 

Heating Railroad Cars 47 

Heating Steel, points on 214 

Heating and Ventilation 386-390 

Heat-Proof Paints 408 

Hero of the Throttle, a 54 

High Speed Gearing 94 

Hi^h and Low Pressure Cylinders, how to find diameters of at 

different pressures 122 

Hip and Valley Roof Framing 455, 456 

Hip Bath in Two Pieces, how to make 406, 407 

Highest Stations for Meteorological Observations 116 



II 

HIndostani Language, extent of 562 

Horses, strength of |^ 559 

Horse-Power, amount of transmitted by belts 120-121 

House Flags of Principal Atlantic Transatlantic Steamship Lines. 574 

House for Village or City, where ground is limited, plans for 497 

House Building Department, introduction to. 478, 479 

How to Anneal Small Tools 30 

How to Find number of Bricks Required to Construct a Building. . 489 

Hot Bearings, detection of 52 

Hot Water System, notes on 368 

Horse-Power of an Engine, to find 92 

Horse-Power, nominal, indicated and effective 142, 143 

How to Light a Lamp with a Snowball 113 

How to Prevent Teeth from Breaking ^ 29 

How to Detect Iron from Steel Tools 39 

ludson Bay Company, the 344 

luman Hair, size of 562 

' Hydrogen, discovery of 562 



lice House, how to build an 444 

P^Improved Method of Molding 44 

Inches, decimal equivalents of 442 

India Ink, how to make 297 

India, locomotive fuel in 96 

Incrustation in Boilers, to prevent 85 

Injector, economy in use of 80 

Inventions by a Negro 287 

Interesting Experiment, an 319 

Instructions for Engineers 95 

Iron Castings to Bronze 336 

Iron Brick 428 

Iron, combustibility of, proved 271, 272 

Iron Castings, facts about 235 

Iron, different colors of caused by heat 305 

^ron, effects of temperature on 93 

•Iron Ships, how protected 77 

Iron, how it breaks 272, 273 

iron Making in India 275 

Jron in the Congo 296 

Jron and Steel, average breaking and crushing strains of 159 

Iron, how to coat with lead • • 37^ 

■Iron, the painting of 4^^ -2^5 



12 

Iron, new method of bronzing 473 

Iron, how to render incorrodible 570 

Isinglass, interesting facts about 465 

Ivory Gloss, how to impart to wood 338 



James Watt 181 

Japanese Water Pipes 210 



Kenwood Villa, plans for 539 



Lacquer for Iron Ships 295 

Largest Electric Light Plant in the World, run by water power... 558 

Largest Pontoon Bridge in the World 560 

Lawndale Cottage, plans for 534 

Latent Heat, what is it? 71 

Lakeshore Railroad Locomotives loi 

Lead Pipe, caliber and weights of 334 

Lead, ancient uses of 369 

Lead in Roofs and in Sinks. 371 

Leaky Roofs, cement for 134 

Leather, new substitute for 560 

Liable to Spontaneous Combustion - 291 

Lima — Chicago Oil Line, the. 290 

Liquids, weight and specific gravity of 34 

Lightning Flashes, duration of ;. . 115 

Lightning Rods, uselessness of • 561 

Locomotive, a liliputian 81 

Locomotive, experiment with a 87 

Locomotive, how fast can one run? 100 

Locomotive, large mileage of a 49 

Locomotive Full, test of 50 

Locomotive Boiler, evaporation of 62 

Locomotive, the first in Ohio 67 

Locomotive Boilers, how constructed 175 

Locomotives, facts about American 72 

Locomotives, nine thousand 73 

Locomotives of the Future 74 

Locomotives, number of German 79 

Locomotives in 1832 and 1888 

Locomotives, the manufacture of 55-62 



13 

Lock, rlagest in the world 562 

Long Measure 358 

Lubricant, Value of Palm Nut Oil, as a 53 

Lubricator, a good 161 

Lubricators, to make cheaply 189 

Lubricating Without Oil 313 

Lumber Measurement Table 477 



Machinery, the care of 143 

Machine poetry 267 

Magnetism, effect of on watches 230-234 

Mahogany, value of 341 

Malleable Iron, how to tin r: 370 

Malleable Cast Iron, how to weld 32 

Manhole Cover, danger from 157 

Manufacture of Locomotives, the 55 

Marine Brake, the 189 

Material, strength of 359-361 

Measures of Capacity 494 

Measures of Different Countries 37-184 

Measures of U. S. and Foreign Countries Compared 184 

Metals, expansion of 25 

Metals, to prevent rusting 322 

Metals, melting point of 285 

Metals, value of 36 

Metal Sleepers — 133 

Mexican Coal at Pittsburg, Pa 415 

Metrical and Centigrade Equivalents 283 

Mineral Cement, the strongest known 135 

Mineral Wool, composition of and uses 225 

Mineral Production of France 290 

Mitering, perfect 449-451 

Miter, how to describe a 382 

Mica, uses of 468 

Model One-story House 503 

Model Cottage, plans for 490 

Model Residence, plans for 512 

Model Combination Barn, plans for .... 516 

Modern Eight-room Cottage, plans for, 521 

Monster Feat in Chicago 290 

Monetary Units and Standard Coins of Foreign Countries 38-39 

Mortar Making, points on 427 



14 

Molders, a valuable point for 283 

Moldings, plaster for 457 

Mud Drums, pitting of 159 

Multum in Parvo Cottage, plans for 525 



Nails, number required to lay shingles 337 

Natural Gas vs. Fuel Gas 130 

Natural Gas, waste of 132 

Natural Gas, composition of. - 287 

Natural Gas in Cupolas, use of 284 

New Engines, manipulation of. 105 

New York Cit^", real estate value of 562 

Nickel Plating Solution 226 

Nickel Plate, how to polish 374 

Nickel Plating, valuable processes for 372 

Non-Magnetizable Watches, how made. 218 

Number of Trees Required per Acre 506 



Oak Lumber, care of 339 

Oak, crushing strength of 316 

Oakland Cottage, plans of 528 

Ocean Tonnage of the World 173 

Oil and Coal, buying , 317 

Oil Filter,, a simple 47 

Oil Stone, how to use 341 

" Old Ironsides " 55 

Old Tins no Longer Useless 371 

Oldest Incorporated Company 344 

Oval, how to draw with square and compass 398 

Oval Damper, how to make 400 

Oval of Any Length or Width, how to strike 385 

Oxygen, discovery of 562 



Paipt, a valuable preservative 117 

Paintwork, notes on 418, 419 

Painting Floors 430 

"^aper Holder, an ornamental 386 

.^aper Makers, valuable points for 561 

Patent Law, the Swiss 277 

Pattern for T Joints 402 



15 

Pattern Making, hints on 239-242 

Pattern Making, notes on 318 

Patterns, how to mend 35 

Parchment for Axle Bearing 49 

Pavements 447 

Pearls in Tyrone, Ireland 344 

Petroleum Engine, Priestman's 172 

Petroleum, how to use for fuel safely 187 

Pile-driver Hammer, an immense 562 

Piston Explosions O2 

Piston Rods, size of 69 

Plane Iron, how to sharpen a 340 

Planing Machine, a novel 122 

Polish for Wood 447 

Pointers for Success in Business T. 556 

Proposed Great Engineering Feat , 435 

Pressure, the total 152 

Proportions of Various Compositions in Common Use 161 

Pumice Stone, how made 266 

Putty for Plastering, how to make 489 



Railroad Cars, manner of heating 47 

Railroad Signals , 48 

Railroad Travel, cost of 54 

Railroad Station, largest in the world 93 

Railroads in 1890 102 

Railway Trains, speed of 68 

Railway Transit, rapid 75 

Railway Gauges of the "World 76 

Railway Axle Grease, to make 189 

Railway Car, an adjustable , 116 

Rain-water Strainer, how to make 399 

Raising a 20,000-ton Building 290 

Ratio of Diameter of Circle to Circumference, to find 315 

Ratio of Area of Circle to Square of its Diameter, to find 315 

Rectangular Cast-Iron Columns, weight of per foot 354 

Redwood Finish 446 

Rope, length per coll and weight per hundred fathoms 33 

Rivets, weight of per 100 204 

Rope Transmission 131 

Rope, how to select 293 

Rope Transmission in England 408 



i6 

Roof Measure 508 

Rosebud Cottage, plans for 530 

Rock, cost of excavating and handling 428 

Round Cast-Iron Column, safe load for 349 

Rotin Timber 438 

Rubber, yearly importation of 562 

Rule for Safety Valve Weights 82 

Rust Joint, how to make 53 

Rust-Proof Wrapping Paper. . . 406 

Rust, how to remove from iron 222 

Rusty Steel, how to clean 238 

Russian Language, extent of 562 

Russian Welding Process, a ...^ 370 

Russian Sheet-Iron, process of manufacture 474-476 



Safe Loads for Pine Beams One Inch Thick 345 

Safe Loads for Round Cast-Iron Columns 349 

Safe Loads for Square Cast-iron Columns 367 

Safe Load for New Steel Rails 350 

Safety Valve Weights, how to find 82 

Sash Weights, making out of tin cans 174 

Savings, table of 141 

Sawdust, how to utilize 127 

Screw Auger, the inventor of 405 

Screw-Driver, an improved 229 

Screw-Head, how to bury out of sight 455 

Screw Making, process of 298, 299 

Screw Threads, tables of gears for cutting 243-264 

Sealing Wax, receipts for making 325 

Seals of the Various Executive Departments of the United States 

Government 563-571 

Seasoning Timber 433 

Self- Winding Clock, a 307 

Seven Room Residence, plans for 492 

Shafting, an easy way to level 307 

Shafting, things to remember about 320 

Sheet Copper, to find tensile strength of 316 

Sheet Tin, sizes and weights of 333 

Shingles, to calculate number required for a roof .... 447 

Ship Signaling at Sea 40"43 

Simple Tests for Water 294 

Six Room House, plans for 485 



17 

Zize and Weight of Flat-top Cans 415 

Sleepers Used by the World's Railroads 409 

Small Timber, benefits of 343 

Smoke/ how formed 70 

Smoky Chimneys, and how to cure them 459-461 

Solder, to clean from old files 173 

Soldering 470-472 

Soldering, points on 472, 473 

Soldering Without Heat 374 

Solid Drawn Tubes, bursting and collapsing pressure of 224 

Solid Measure 355 

Solidity of a Globe, how to find 514 

Spanish Language, extent of , 562 

Specific Gravities, table of 160 

Specific Gravity and Weight of Metals r-. 35 

Specifications for House Plans 542-556 

Speed of a Locomotive . 51 

Speed of Trains 84 

Speed of Trains in Different Countries 85 

Spontaneous Combustion 136-139 

Spontaneous Combustion in Coal Ships 137 

Square and Round Bars of Wrought Iron, weight and areas of 190-195 / 

Square Cast Iron Columns, weight of per foot 354 / 

Square Measure 357 

Stars and Stripes, how the National Emblem was adopted 571-573 '■ 

Steam, an invisible gas • jt 

Steam, as a cleansing agent io( 

Steam Boiler, largest in America 122 

Steam Boilers, annealing 168 

Steam Boilers, horse power of 161 

Steam Boilers in New York, number of 126 

Steam Boilers, points for operatives of 147 

Steam Boilers, proportions of 166 

Steam Coal 151, 152 

Steam Economy, law of proportion in 160 

Steam Engine, future of the 164, 165 

Steam Engine, theory of the 63 

Steam Engines of the World 94 

Steamers, fast American 88 

Steam Generator, a new ... 181 

Steam Gauges 146 

Steam Heating. 154 

Steam Navigation, rise and progress of 1 79 



i8 

Steam Pipes, a non-conducting coating for 134 

Steam Pipe required to heat a building 434 

Steam Pipe, how to thaw out when frozen 126 

Steam Power of the World 174 

Steam Power in France 133 

Steam Pressure, economy of high 178 

Steam, properties of saturated 150 

Steam Radiator, heating surface of 369 

Steam, safe working pressure for iron boilers of different sizes 153 

Steam, superheated 146 

Steam vs. Hot Water Heating 462-464 

Steel, chemical and physical tests for 212 

Steel, crushing strength of 316 

Steel, effects of Jiardening on 139 

Steel Hardening, points on 54 

Steel, how to anneal 223 

Steel, how to frost 53 

Steel, how to render incorrodible 570 

Steel Making in India 275-277 

Steel Nails in Canada 319 

Steel, notes on the working of 26 

^Steel Pipe, how to test strength of 310 

SSteel Punches, how to temper . 24 

Sisteel Sleepers, riveting of 138 

Scteel, weight of sheets of 196, 197 

Scteel, why hard to weld 304 

Scjteel Springs, how to temper 32 

SSteel Workers, suggestions to 213 

^Step Bearings for Vertical Shafts 176 

Stopping with a heavy fire 154 

Storage Battery, how to make 312 

Strength of Various Materials 359-361 

Submarine Cables, how breaks in are detected and repaired. . .278-282 

Sugar, amount of, in coal 201 

Sun, how to find position of at any time of the day 555 

Surface of a Globe, how to find 514 

Surveying Measure 358 

Switching from the Engine Cab 48 

Sycamore for Interior Finish 439 



Table of the Principal Alloys 424 

Tacks, length of, and number to the pound 119 



19 

Tanks, to calculate capacity of 335 

Tanktown, Ohio 167 

Tapering Round-cornered Square Reservoir, how to make 401 

Tapering Square Article, how to describe a pattern for 404 

Telephone, long distance 133 

Temperature, effects of on iron 93 

Tempenng, points on 213 

Tempering Nails, comparative value of 427 

Tensile Strength of Cast Iron per Square Inch 315 

Tensile Strength of Wrought Iron per Square Inch 316 

Tensile Strength of Steel 316 

Testing Exterior Stains 444 , 

Theory of the Steam Engine 63 

Thermal Unit, explanation of. .^ 155 

Thermometer, how made 300 

Thermometer Scales 302-304 

Throttle, a hero of the 54 

Things That Will Never be Settled 293 

Things Worth Knowing 294 

Timber, properties of 366 

Time at Different Places when it Is 12 o'clock at New York City. 117-119 

Tin Boxes, how to mark on 570 / 

Tin, how to Japan and Lacquer 297 j 

Tin, modern uses of 466-468 I 

Tinning, by simple immersion 434 / 

Tinning, improved process of 469, 470 ; 

Tire, remarkable record of 83 

Tools, points on the care of 229 

Torpedo Boats, rivets for 208 

Torpedo, unreliability of the 113 

Tracing Paper, how to make 24 

Traffic of Transatlantic Steamers 104 

Transatlantic Steamer, a new 179 

Transmission of Power by Wire Ropes 183 

Trench Digging Machine 130 

Triple Expansions ^. 106 

Two Spindle Milling Machine 390-391 



Ultimate Resistance to Compression of Different Substances. ..360-361 

Ultimate Resistance to Shearing of Different Substances 364 

Universal Gas Pipe Threads, table for making 266 

Universal Taps, table for making 265 



20 



Useful Numbers '. 315 

Useful Shop Kinks 395-398 



Vacuum, transmitting power by a 136 

Valuable Figures 448 

Value of Coins of Different Countries 38-39 

Value of Different Metals 36 

Various Locations of the Capital of the United States 557 

Varnish, how to make adhere to metal 282 

Varnish, removal of old 441 

Ventilation, hints on 422 

Ventilation of Buildings ..451,-454 

Very Cheap and Comfortable House, design for 480 

Very Cheap Tenement, plans for - 504 

Vibration, how to overcome 129 



Wall Measure 508 

Wall Plaster, a new 446 

\ Washers, number of in a box or keg of 150 pounds 24 

i " Waste " No Longer a Word in Mechanics 270, 271 

Watch and Learn 216 

I Watch Wheels, number of revolutions of 283 

I Water, density of 123 

I Water, quantity of alcohol in 50 

' Water, simple tests for 294 

Water, weight of a cubic inch of 355 

Waxing Floors '. 338 

Weight and Number of Hexagon Nuts in a Keg or Box of 200 pounds 29 
Weight and Number of Square Nuts in a Keg or Box of 200 pounds 28 

Weight and Specific Gravity of Liquids 34 

Weight of a Cubic Foot of Substances 346 

Weight and Specific Gravity of Metals 35 

Welding, a Russian process for 370 

Welland Canal, the 561 

When a Day's Work Begins 289 

White Lead, to test quality of 133 

Why Men Cannot Fly 132 

Why Water Puts Out Fire 79 

" Will-o'-the Wisp," explanation of c 137 

Window Glass, number of lights in a box of 50 feet 31-32 

Wire Flower Stand, pattern for 385 



21 

Wire Manufacture, a new process for 409 

Wire Span, a long 288 

Wood, a polish for 447 

Wood, a very durable 443 

Wooden beams, a safe load for 345 

Wood, how to determine quality of 403 

Wood, how to make an ivory gloss on „ . . 338 

Wood Measure 512 

Wood, pounds per square foot, according to dryness 333 

Wood, preservation of by lime 443 

Wood Workers, points for 420-421 

Workshop j ottings 322 

World's Steam Engines, number of .^ 94 

Wrought Iron, amount of heat required to melt 28 

Wrought Iron, decrease in strength at high temperatures 25 

Wrought Iron, tensile strength of per square foot 316 

Wrought Iron, weight of sheets of 196-J97 



Yards, decimal equivalents of .». 44a 

Zinc as a Fire Extinguisher 381 

Zinc, how to polish 42 

Zinc, tinning acids for 37^ 

Zinc, to prepare for painting 322 

BUILDING DEPARTMENT. 
Introduction — Hints to those contemplating building 478, 479 

PLANS. 

No. » Page. 

1 Five Room Cottage 480 

2 Eight Room Dwelling 481 

3 Very ConvenienJ Five Room Cottage .*.... 482 

■ 4 Convenient and Cheap Cottage 483 

5 Attractive and Convenient Eight Room Cottage .... 484 

6 Convenient Six Room House 485, 486 

7 Very Cheap House for Small Farm or Village Tenement 487 

8 Model Country Residence 488 489 

9 Model Cottage 490 

10 Economical Seven Room House 491 

11 Very Handsome and Convenient Seven Room Residence 49a 

12 Economical and well-arranged Twelve Room House 493, 494 



13 Same as No. ii, differently arranged ^yj 

14 Convenient Eight Room Dwelling 496 

15 Cheap Village or City House, where ground is limited 497 

16 Good Farm or Village House, with room well utilized 498 

17 Beautiful and Convenient Cottage 499 

18 Cheap and attractive Eight Room House 500, 501 

19 Very Cheap and Convenient House 502 

20 Model One S tory House 503 

21 Very Cheap Tenement 504 

22 Beautiful Village Residence 505, 506 

23 Attractive and Cheap Village or Country Church 507 

24 Very Commodious Barn 508 

25 Cheap Horse Barn 509 

26 Finely Arranged Combination Barn 510, 511 

27 Model Residence. ..512-515 

28 Model Combination Barn 516 

29 " Chicago Cottage " SiJ-'S*?^ 

30 Modern Eight Room House 521-524 

31 " Multum in Parvo " Cottage 525 

32 Handsome and Commodious Residence 526 

33 Very Handsome Cottage, with no waste of room 527 

34 " Oakland " Cottage 528, 529 

35 " Rosebud " Cottage. 530 

36 " Canadian " Cottage 53^-533 

37 " Lawndale " Cottage 534 

38 " Ferndale " Cottage 535, 536 

39 " Buena Vista " Cottage 537, 538 

40 " Kenwood " Villa 539-541 

Specifications for Foregoing Plans 542-556 



23 

FACTS ABOUT PRESIDENTS. 



INTERESTING HISTORICAL TRUTHS 
THOUGHT OF. 



NOW SELDOM 



The table below gives at a glance the political history of 
the Presidents. The letter " o " signifies that the President 
whose name is opposite filled the specified offices before he 
was called to guide the ship of State : 



Names. 


1 


1 




t/5 

to 


U 




i 




5=1 




in 


in 

> 


in 

.SO 


Washington. 
Adams.. 


1732 
1735 
1743 
1751 
1758 
1767 
1767 
1782 

1773 
1790 

1795 
1784 
1800 
1804 
179I 

1822 
1822 
1831 
1830 
1837 
1833 


Com 
Capt.. 

mjVg. 
Mj*. g! 

Gen 























































Jefferson... . 
Madison .... 













. .State 






State . 




Monroe. 










State . 
State . 










J. Q. Adams 
Jackson .... 
Van Buren. . 








Judge. 


State . 









Harrison . . . 

Tyler 

Polk 


Tr. Sec. 








Taylor 

Fillmore . . , 












BgVc! 

Capt*' 

Com*.* 
Bg. G. 
Mj. G. 
Gen.. . 
































Com . . . • 


Pierce 


•• 










D. Atty. 


Buchanan . . 


State . 







Lincoln 




PostM. 


Johnson. . . . 
Grant 
















Aid. 


War.. 






Hayes 








City Sol. 


Garfield 











Arthur 









Col Pt. 


^Cleveland. . 



















Mayor. 
Ct. Rep. 


Harrison . . . 


Bg. G. 











* Clsveland was Sheriff and Assistant District Attorney. 

Only three Presidents occupied office after vacating the 
Presidential chair — Quincy Adams, who afterward spent 
seventeen years in Congress ; Monroe, who became a Justice 
of the Peace; and Johnson, who was elected United States 
Senator in 1875. 



24 

NUMBER OF WASHERS IN A BOX OR KEG OF 150 
POUNDS. 



Diameter. 


Size of 


Thickness. 


Size of 


No. in 150 




Hole. 




Bolt. 


lbs. 


¥2 


X 


No. 18 


3-16 


80,000 


'A 


5-16 


" 16 


X 


34,285 


Ya 


5-i6 


" 16 


X 


22,000 


^ 


^ 


" 16 


5-16 


18,500 




7-16 


" 14 


/8 


10,550 


iX 


'A 


" 14 


7-16 


7,500 


iKs 


9-16 


" 12 


K 


4,500 


i>4 


" 12 


9-16 


3.850 


i)i 


ii-i6 


" 10 


K 


2,500 


2 


13-16 


" 10 


X 


1,600 


2^ 


15-16 


" 9 


^ 


1,300 


2^ 


I 1-16 


" 9 


I 


950 


2^ 


iX 


" 9 


I>f 


700 


3 


1^8 


" 9 


IX 


550 


3^ 


iX 


" 9 


I>^ 


450 



TEMPERING STEEL PUNCHES. 

The following method of tempering steel punches gives 
excellent results, especially when used for cold punching of 
machine horseshoes. 

Heat your steel to cherry-red, dress out the punch, cut 
off the point the size of a horseshoe nail, then heat to a 
cherry-red, immerse it a half inch perpendicularly in the 
water, then take it out and stand it up perpendicular, clean 
the end with a piece of grinding; stone. When you see the 
first blue pass over the point, dip it in the water the same 
depth as before. Clean it again with the stone, and on the 
appearance of the blue again, cool it off. The second blue 
is to make the punch tough. The reason for keeping the 
punch perpendicular is to allow the atmosphere and the 
water to cool all sides equally, and to have it cool straight 
and true. 

HOW TO MAKE TRACING PAPER. 
Take some good thin printing paper, and brush it over on 
one side with a solution consisting of one part, by measure, 
of castor oil in two parts of meth. spirit ; blot off and hang up 
to dry. You can trace by pencil or ink on this. I have tried 
it and done it. 



25 

EXPANSION OF METALS. 
The length of the bar at 32^ = I. 



At 212^ 



Expan. per 
deg. Fah. 



Brass 

Copper 

Cast Iron .... 

Steel 

Wrought Iron 

Tin 

Zinc 



1. 00 1 9062 

1. 001 745 

1.0011112 

1.0011899 

1.0012575 

1.002 

1.002942 



,0000106 

.0000097 

.0000062 

,0000066 

.000007 

.0000111 

.0000163 



DECREASE OF STRENGTH OF WROUGHT IRON 
AT HIGH TEMPERATURES. 



Temp. 


Decrease 

per cent, of 

max. tenacity. 


; Tem. 


Decrease 

per cent, of 

max. tenacity. 


Cen. 


Fahr. 


Cen. 


Fahr. 


271° 

313 

332 

% 

440 


520^ 
630 

732 


.0738 
.0899 
.1047 

•I155 
.1491 

.20IO 


5000 

554 

599 

624 

669 

708 


9320 

1154 

1306 


•3324 

'4478 

.5514 

.6 

.6622 

.7001 



HOW TO MEND BROKEN BELTING. 

According to Campe, broken belting can be re-united by 
the use of chrome glue. With a lap of four or five inches, 
the re-united part is apparently as firm as any part of the 
band, though it is well to take the precaution to tack down 
the ends of the lapped pieces with a few stitches of stout 
thread. The chrome glue is prepared in this way: Take 100 
parts glue, soaked twelve hours in water, then pour off the 
sulphur water, melt the glue, add 2 per cent, of glycerine 
and 3 per cent, of red chromate of potash, melting them with 
the glue. This mixture, thinned by warming, is applied to 
the lapped ends after having been roughened with a rasp, and 
then placed between two hardwood strips in a vice and well 
pressed They should be left twenty-four hours in the vice 
to become thoroughly dried. 



26 

NOTES ON THE WORKING OF STEEL. 

1. Good soft heat is safe to use if steel be immediately 
and thoroughly worked. 

It is a fact that good steel will endure more pounding than 
any iron. 

2. If steel be left long in the fire it will lose its steely na- 
ture and grain, and partake of the nature of cast iron. 

Steel should never be kept hot any longer than is necessary 
to the work to be done. 

3. Steel is entirely mercurial under the action of heat, 
and a careful study of the tables will show that there must of 
necessity be an injurious internal strain created, whenever 
two or more parts of the same piece are subjected to dif- 
ferent temperatures. 

4. It follows that when steel has been subjected to heat 
not absolutely uniform over the whole mass, careful anneal- 
ing should be resorted to. 

J)". As the change of volume due to a degree of heat in- 
creases directly and rapidly with the quantity of carbon 
present, therefore high steel is more liable to dangerous in- 
ternal strain than low steel, and great care should be exer- 
cised in the use of high steel. 

6. Hot steel should always be put in a perfectly dry place 
of even temperature while cooling. A wet place in the floor 
might be sufficient to cause serious injury. 

7. Never let any one fool you with the statement that his 
steel possesses a peculiar property which enables it to be 
" restored " after being " burned; " no more should you waste 
-»ny money on nostrums for restoring burned steel. 

t^ We have shown how to restore " overheated " steel. 

"^ For " burned " steel, which is oxidized steel, there is only 

^one way of restoration, and that is through the knobbling fire 

p or the blast furnace. . 

' " Overheating " and " restoring " should only be allowable 
for purposes of experiment. The process is one of disintegra- 
tion, and is always injurious. 

8. Be careful not to overdo the annealing process; if car- 
ried too far it does great harm, and it is one of the commonest 
modes of destruction which the steelmaker meets in his daily 
troubles. 

It is hard to induce the average worker in steel to believe 
that very little annealing is necessary, and that a very little 
is really more efficacious than a great deal. 



27 
ALLOYS AND SOLDERS. 



ALLOYS. 


d 
25 




u 

112 
100 
160 

i 

64 




N 

X 
15 

5 


1 

< 


a; 


.5 
S 

S 


Brass engine bearings 

Tough brass, engine work 

" for heavy bearings. . . . 
Yellow brass, for turning 




















.... 


Flanges to stand brazing 










Bell metal 


5 
10 




Babbitt's metal 


- ^ 


I 






Brass locomotive bearings 

" for straps and glands . . . 

Muntz's sheathing 

Metal to expand in cooling. . , 


















2 
17 


9 




Pewter. • 


100 








Spelter 


I 

90 








Statuary bronze 


2 


I 

I 


2 
3 

7 

2 

I 




Type metal from 




" to 


I 
I 
2 




. . . . 




SOLDERS. 

For lead 




« tin 










" pewter. . 










" brazing (hardest) 


3 

I 

4 


3 






" " (hard) 










« " (soft) 


I 
2 








a u a 


I 







HOW TO MAKE HARD AND DUCTILE BRASS 
CASTINGS. 

Two per cent, by weight of finely pounded bottle glass, 
placed at the bottom of the crucible in which red brass is 
being melted for castings, gives great hardness, and at the 
same time ductility to the metal. Porous castings are said to 
be almost an impossibility when this is done, and the product 
is likely to ?:>e of great service in parts of machinery subject to 
strain. An addition of one per cent, of oxide of manganese 
facilitates working in the lathe and elsewhere where great 
hardness might be an objection. 



28 

WEIGHT AND NUMBER OF SQUARE NUTS IN A 
BOX OR KEG OF 200 POUNDS. 



Width. 


Thick- 


Hole. 


Size of 


No. in 


Weight 




ness. 




Bolt. 


200 lbs. 


of Nut. 


^ 


X 


7-32 


X 


14,844 


lbs. 


H 


5.16 


9-32 


5-16 


7,880 




Ya 


Vs 


11-32 


yz 


4,440 




Vi 


7.16 


13-32 


7-16 


2,732 




^ 


>^ 


7-16 


}« 


2,450 




I 


^ 


7-i6 


i,8i6 




i>^ 


V2 


% 


9-16 


1.390 




!■% 


Vi 


9-16 


;■« 


1,174 


•17 


iX 




9-16 


898 


•23 


T.y% 


34: 


21-32 


iK 


662 


•3 


x% 


^ 


21-32 


538 


•37 


iH 


^ 


25-32 


\n 


392 


.51 


1% 


J^ 


25-32 


326 


.61 


lU 


I 


y. 


V 


304 


.66 


2 


I 


% ^ 


224 


.89 


2 


^y% 


15-16 


V'A 


214 


•93 


2% 


^% 


15-16 


152 


1.32 


2% 


iX 


I 1-16 


w 


143 


1.4 


iVz 


iX 


I 1-16 


108 


1.85 


2H 


1^8 


I 3-16 


xYi 


!3 


2.41 


3 


iX 


I 5-16 


^y^ 


65 


3^1 


3X 


I>^ 


I 7-16 


iH 


51 


4- 


3/2 


iX 


I .9-16 


iX 


42 


4.8 


zH 


iK 


I 11-16 


iVi 


32 


6.3 


4 


2 


I 13-16 


2 


27 


7-4 


4 


2>^ 


^% 


2^ 




7X 


4X 


2X 


2 


2X 




8X 


4X 


2^8 


iy% 


2^8 




8X 


4>^ 


2>^ 


2X 


2^ 




loX 


aU 


2^ 


2 7-16 


2^ 




13X 


5 


3 


2 II-16 


3 




14 



AMOUNT OF HEAT REQUIRED TO MELT 
WROUGHT IRON. 

The temperature necessary to melt wrought iron lies 
between 4,000° and 5,000° F., and even at that tremendous 
heat, wTought iron is only rendered fluid by the addition of a 
small amount of aluminum. 



29 

WEIGHT AND NUMBER OF HEXAGON NUTS IN 
A KEG OR BOX OF 200 POUNDS. 



Width. 


Thick- 


Hole. 


Size of 


No. in 


Weight 




ness. 




Bolt. 


200 lbs. 


of Nut 


% 


X 


7-32 


^. 


17,332 


lbs. 


% 


5-16 


9-32 


5-16 


8,964 




Ya 


H 


11-32 


/8^ 


5,016 




Vb 


7-16 


13-32 


7-16 


2,988 




% 


>^. 


7-16 


\y- 


2,674 




I 


>^ 


7-16 


2,160 




I>^ 


9-16 


Y- 


9-16 


1,445 




^y% 


H 


9-16 


[« 


1,310 


•15 


1% 


Vs 


9-16 


1,028 


.2 


iX 


K 


9-16 


i 


920 


.22 


lYi 


% 


21-32 


!-« 


^752 


.27 


VA 


Yz 


21-32 


510 


•38 


1% 


Yb 


25-32 


[ Yb 


450 


•44 


iVs 


I 


25-32 


428 


•47 


1% 


I 


'A 


f- 


372 


•54 


lY 


i>f 


^ . 


336 




2 


iX 


15-16 


i>i 


211 


•95 


2X 


i^ 


I 1-16 


iX 


159 


1.26 


2>^ 


iK 


I 3-16 


I^ 


'o2 


1.68 


2% 


i>^ 


I 5-16 


I^ 


88 


2.27 


3 


iX 


I 7-16 


I>^ 


69 


2.9 


3X 


I^ 


I 9-16 


iX 


56 


3.6 


3^ 


2 


I 11-16 


I^ 


44 


4.6 


3^ 


2 


J 13-16 


V 


43 


4-7 


4 


2 


I 13-16 


29 


6.9 


3^ 


2>^ 


lYi 


2% 




S% 


3X 


2X 


2 


2% 




s% 


4 


2/8 


2>^ 


2^8 




6% 


4X 


2;^ 


2X 


2>^ 




7X 


ArY 


2^ 


2 7-16 


2H 




9X 


4H 


3 


2 II-16 


3 




ii>^ 



HOW TO PREVENT GEAR TEETH FROM BREAKING. 

Gear teeth generally have one corner broken off first, after 
which they rapidly go to pieces. This may be avoided and 
the teeth made much stronger by thinning down the edges 
with a file, thereby bringing the whole strain along the centre 
of the tooth. Gear teeth fixed this way will not break unless 
the strain be sufficient to break off the whole tooth. 



30 

DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS 

of 8ths, i6ths, 32ds and 64ths of an 



Inch. 



Fractions Decimals 


Fractions Decimals 


of an of an 


of an of an 


Inch. Inch. 


Inch. 


Inch. 


1-64 = .015625 


33-64 = 


515625 


1-32 = .03125 


17-3 = 


53125 


3-64= .046875 


35-64 = 


546875 


1-16 = .0625 


9-16 = 


5625 


5-64 = .078125 


37-64 = 


578125 


3-32 = .09375 


19-32 = 


59375 


7-64= -109375 


39-64 = 


609375 


Vs =.125 


H- 


625 


9-64 = .140625 


41-64 = 


640625 


5-32 =.15625 


21-32 = 


65625 


11-64= .171875 


43-64 = 


671875 


3-16 =.1875 


11-16 = 


6875 


13-64= .203125 


45-64>. 


703125 


7.32 = .21875 


23-32 = 


.7185 


15-64= .234375 


47-64 = 


734375 


X=.5 


X = 


75 


17-64= .265625 


49-64 = 


765625 


9.32 = .28125 


25-32 = 


78125 


19.64= .296875 ■ 


51-64 = 


796875 


5-16 «. 3125 1 


13-16 = 


8125 


21-64 =.328125 I 


53-64 = 


.828125 


11-32 = .34375 ! 


27-32 = 


■84375 


23-64 = .359375 1 


55-64 = 


859375 


H = .375 1 


^ = 


.875 


25-64= .390625 1 


57-64 = 


89625 


13-32 = .40625 


29-32 = 


90625 


27-64 = .421895 


59-64 = 


92187.^ 


7.16 =.4375 


15-16 = 


9375 


29-64 = .453125 


61-64 = 


.953125 


15-32 = .46875 


31-32 = 


.96875 


31-64= .484375 


63-64 = 


984375 


K=.5 





HOW TO ANNEAL SMALL TOOLS. 
A very good way to anneal a small piece of tool steel is to 
heat it up in a forge as slowly as possible, and then take two 
fireboards and lay the hot steel between them and screw them 
in a \dce. As the steel is hot, it sinks into the pieces of 
wood, and is firmly imbedded in an almost air-tight charcoal 
bed, and when taken out cold will be found to be nice and 
soft. To repeat this will make it as soft as could be wished. 



31 



NUMBER OF LIGHTS OF 


WINDOW GLASS IN A 




BOX OF 50 FEET 






Size. 


No. 
Lights. 


Size. 


No. 
Lights. 


Size. 


No. 
Lights. 


6x 8 


150 


28 


16 


50 


5 


7x 9 


115 


30 


15 


30x38 


7 


8xio 


90 


18x22 


18 


40 


6 


II 


82 


24 


17 


42 


6 


12 


75 


26 


16 


44 


6 


13 


69 


28 


14 


4^ 


5 


H 


64 


30 


14 


48 


5 


9x12 


67 


32 


13 


50 


5 


13 


62 


20x26 


14 


52 


5 


14 


57 


28 


13 


54 


4 


15 


^ 


30 


12 


32x40 


6 


10x13 


56 


32 


II 


^42 


6 


14 


52 


34 


II 


32x44 


5 


15 


48 


36 


10 


46 


5 


16 


45 


22x28 


12 


48 


5 


11x14 


47 


30 


II 


50 


5 


15 


44 


Z^ 


10 


52 


4 


16 


41 


34 


10 


54 


4 


18 


39 


^l 


9 


56 


4 


12x15 


40 


38 


9 


34x44 


5 


16 


38 


24x30 


10 


4^ 


5 


18 


34 


32 


10 


48 


5 


20 


30 


24x34 


9 


50 


4 


13x16 


35 


3^ 


9 


52 


4 


18 


31 


Z^ 


8 


54 


4 


20 


28 


40 


8 


56 


4 


22 


25 


26x32 


9 


f 


4 


14x18 


29 


34 


8 


60 


4 


20 


26 


36 


8 


36x46 


4 


22 


24 


38 


7 


48 


4 


24 


22 


40 


7 


50 


4 


15x18 


27 


42 


7 


52 


4 


20 


24 


44 


6 


' 54 


4 


22 


22 


28x36 


7 


^6 


4 


24 


20 


38 


7 


58 


3 


26 


19 


40 


7 


36x60 


3 


16x20 


23 


42 


6 


62 


3 


22 


21 


44 


6 


64 


3 


24 


19 


46 


6 


38x46 


4 


26 1 


17 


48 


5 


48 


4 



32 

NUMBER OF LIGHTS OF WINDOW GLASS IN A 
BOX OF 50 FEET.-^Continued. 



Size. 


No. 
Lights. 


Size. 


No. 
Lights. 


Size. 


No. 
Lights. 


50 


4 


60 


3 


66 


3 


52 


4 


40x62 


3 


68 


3 


H 


■4 


64 


3 


70 


2 


56 


3 


66 


3 


44x54 


3 


58 


3 


40x68 


3 


56 


3 


60 


3 


70 


3 


58 


3 


62 


3 


42x50 


3 


60 


3 


64 


3 


52 


3 


62 


3 


66 


3 


54 


3 


64 


3 


40x48 


4 


56 


3 


66 


2 


50 


4 


5/ 


3 


68 


2 


52 


3 


60 


3 


70 


2 


54 


3 


62 


3 


72 


2 


56 


3 


1 64 


3 







TEMPERING STEEL SPRINGS. 

Coiled springs of steel wire are tempered by heating them 
in a box or piece of gaspipe, in which they are packed with 
bone dust or animal charcoal, precisely as though they were 
to be heated for case-hardening. If a piece of gaspipe is 
used, which is very handy in such work, one end should be 
closed by a screw-plug or cap, and the open end luted with 
clay. When the box or pipe is sufficiently heated, say to a 
deep red, remove the spring or plunge the receptacle and its 
contents together into a bath of animal oil. Do not attempt 
water-hardening or the use of crude petroleum. If common 
whale oil is not handy, melt lard, and use it while it is in 
liquid. The wire will be sufficiently hard to require " draw- 
ing." This should be done by putting the spring into a 
shallow pan, with tallow or animal oil, over the forge fire, 
and agitating the pan and its contents until the oil takes fire. 
Take the springs out, and, when the oil is burned off, cool 
them in water. 

WELDING MALLEABLE CAST IRON. 

You can weld malleable cast iron plates by riveting them 
together and using a flux of powdered borax and Norwegian 
or crucible steel filings, equal parts. Let the first blows of 
your hammer be tender ones. 



33 

LENGTH PER COIL AND WEIGHT OF ROPE PER 

HUNDRED FATHOMS. 











Tarred 


Manila and Sisal Rope. 




Cordage. 


Diameter in 


Cir. in 


Le'gth 


Lb«. 


Le'gth, Lbs. 


inches. 


inches 


in feet. 


per 
100 Fa 


in feet. 


per 
100 Fa 


% or 6th. 


H- 


i,3CX) 


12 


840 


18 


5-16 or 9th. 


15-16 


1,300 


17 


840 


29 


^ or I2th. 


1% 


1,200 


23 


840 


40 


15 thread. 


15 thread. 


1,200 


31 


840 


47 


18 thread. 


18 thread. 


1,100 


45 


840 


58 


21 thread. 


21 thread. 


r,ioo 


50 


840 


68 


% 


VA 


990 


52 


960 


64 


9-16 


i^A 


990 


70 


960 


79 


% 


2 


990 


83 


960 


94 


H 


2% 


990 


105 


960 


130 


Vi 


2% 


990 


125 


960 


140 


15-16 


2% 


990 


155 


960 


170 


I 


3 , 


990 


175 


960 


207 


I 1-16 


Z% 


990 


205 


960 


238 


I 3-!6 


yA 


990 


255 


960 


272 


iX ^ 


z% 


990 


280 


960 


300 


I S-I6 


4 , 


960 


310 


960 


332 


lYi 


4^ 


960 


355 


960 


376 


VA 


4>^^ 


960 


410 


960 


440 


1% ^, 


4^ 


960 


450 


960 


505 


I II-16 


5 , 


960 


500 


960 


573 


lU 


5X 


960 


550 


960 


610 


m 


5>^ 


960 


610 


960 


654 


1 15-16 


5^ 


960 


690 


960 


797 


2 


6 


960 


750 


960 


900 


2 3-16 


6j^ 


960 


845 


960 


1.057 


2% 


7 , 


960 


1,000 


960 


1.163 


2% 


7>^ 


960 


1,100 


960 


1.356 


2% 


8 


960 


1,270 


960 


1,613 


3 


9 


960 


1^595 


960 


2,013 



HOW TO MAKE BRONZE MALLEABLE. 

Domier has discovered that bronze is rendered malleable 
by adding to it from one-half to two per cent, of mercury. 



34 



WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF LIQUIDS. 



Water, distilled, 60^ Fahr 

** sea 

** Dead Sea 

Acid, Acetic 

*' Nitric . 

** Sulphuric 

** Muriatic 

Alcohol, pure 

" proof 

. " of commerce . . . . 

Cider. 

Honey 

Milk '. .. 

Molasses 

Oil, Linseed 

** Olive 

** Turpentine 

'" Whale 

Naphtha 

Petroleum 

Tar ;;... 

Wines (average) ........ 



Specific 


Wt. pr 


grav. 


cu. m. 




Lbs. 


I. 


.036 


1.03 


.037 


1.24 


.045 


1.062 


.038 


1. 217 


.044 


1. 841 


.067 


1.2 


•043 


.792 


.029 


.916 


•033 


.«33 


.030 


1.018 


.036 


1.45 


.052 


1.032 


.037 


1.426 


.05 


.940 


•034 


.915 


•033 


.870 


.031 


.923 


.033 


.848 


.031 


.878 


.032 


1. 015 


.036 


.998 


.036 



Wt. pr 



Lbs. 

8-33 
8.55 

10.4 

8.78 

10. i6 

15.48 

9-93 
6.7 

7.62 

6.93 
8.4 
12. 

S.55 
11.66 

7.85 

7.62 

7.16 

7,65 

7- 

7.39 

8.4 

8-3 



THE MOST TERRIBLE EXPLOSIVE KNOWN. 

The most terrible explosive known to science is chlorate of 
nitrogen. Dulong discovered it in 181 2, and lost two fingers 
and an eye by it. Since then no one has been anxious to find 
out what its composition was, until Dr. Gattermann, a 
German chemist imdertook it. In the course of his experi- 
ments, Dr. Gattermann observed that chlorate of nitrogen, 
which explodes with great violence if brought into contact 
with organic substances, also explodes in the presence of sun 
or magnesium light. In the dark, or in scattered daylight, it 
never explodes spontaneously. Sudden and apparently spon- 
.taneous explosions of chlorate of nitrogen which have taken 
•place were doubtless occasioned by the unobserved effect of 
sunlight. Chlorate of nitrogen appears to be one of those 
substances the world is better off without. 



35 
WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF METAL. 



Metals. 



Wt. pr 
cubic ft. 



Wt. pr 

cubic ft. 



Aluminum 

Antimony, cast 

Bismuth 

Brass, cast . . . . 

Bronze 

Copper, cast. . . 

* * wire . . . 

Gold, 24 carat . 

'* standard. 

Gun -metal 

Iron, cast 

'* wrought. . 
Lead, cast 

'* rolled 

Mercury 

Platinum 

" sheet., 
Silver, pure. . . . 

** standard 

Steel 

Tin, cast 

Zinc 



Lbs. 
166 
419 
613 
524 
534 
537 
555 
1208 
1 106 
528 

450 
485 
708 
711 
849 
1344 
1436 
654 
644 
490 
455 
437 



Specific 
grav. 



Lbs. 
096 
242 
353 
3 
308 

31 

32 

,697 

638 

304 

26 

28 

408 

J. I 

489 

775 
828 

377 
371 
284 
262 
252 



2.67 
6.72 
9.822 
8.4 
8.561 
8.607 
8.9 

19.361 

17.724 

8.459 

7.21 

7.78 

11.36 

1 1. 41 

13-596 

21.531 

23- 

10.474 

10.312 

7.85 

7.291 

7- 



HOW TO MEND PATTERNS. 

For mending patterns needing temporary repairs, or for 
making additions where but one or two molds are to be 
made, the following material will be found very useful. Melt 
together i pound beeswax, i pound rosin and one pound 
paraffine wax. It is well to note here that the beeswax in- 
tended is the wax made by the bees, and not the wax made by 
the wholesale dealers. The cheap wax sold to the shipping 
houses contains but a small portion of the article ma-^e by 
the bees, and a large proportion of soft paraffine wax. The 
result of using this compound wax instead of the genuine arti- 
cle, in any mixture, is to introduce too much paraffine »^ 
only a little beeswax. When the genuine article is used, this 
mixture will be found very useful for making additions to pat- 
terns, small temporary patterns, and for a variety of purposes 
in the pattern shop. 



3^ 

VALUE OF METALS. 
Gold by the pound avoirdupois. 

Vanadium (cryst. fused) , $4,792.40 

Rubidium (wire) 3,261.60 

Calcium (electrolyctic) 2,446.20 

Tantalum (pure) 2,446.20 

Cerium (fused globules) , . 2,446.20 

Eithium (globules) 2,228. 79 

Lithium (wire) 2,935.44 

Lubium (fused) 1,671.57 

Didymium (fused) i ,620.08 

Strontium (electrolyctic) o . 1,576.44 

Indium (pure) 1,522.08 

Ruthenium 1,304.64 

Columbium (fused). 1,250.28 

Rhodium 1,032.84 

Barium (electrolyctic) 924. 12 

TaUium 738.39 

Osmium 652.32 

Palladium 498.30 

Iridium 466. 59 

Uranium 434.88 

Gold 299. 72 

Titanium (fused) 239.80 

Tellurium " 196.20 

Chromium " 196.20 

Platinum " 122. 31 

Manganese " 108. 72 

Molydenum. 54-34 

Magnesium (wire and tube) 45- 3^ 

Potassium (globules) 22.65 

Silver 18.60 

Aluminum (bar) 16.30 

Cobalt (cubes) 12.68 

Nickel 3.80 

Cadmium. 5-26 

Sodium 3.26 

Bismuth (crude) 1.95 

Mercury 1. 00 

Antimony .36 

Tin .25 

Copper .22 

Arsenic ; .15 

Zinc .10 

Lead .06 

Iron. I |4f 



37 
MEASURES OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 





a 
HI 



O bit 



<u ^ (U 

^8.§ 






:3 
o 






«2 if4 









m 



So I ^ 



vo 



^ II p,^ bJO 



II fn.^ 



< 



^ o 




en 


^3 


^ y5 


n 


^'^ 


t-^ 


104:3 




CO ^ 




0^ I^ 


U-J 


Tl-^ 


11 


9^ 


n 


Jm 


II II 


(U 










f^ .^ ^ ■ 









(J 
00 


rilS 








c< 


N 




li 


ro 


^^ 


0) 




>-i 




M 


Pm 


rr 


dJ 


II 





T 




Tt- 




n 


II 




W«+H 





1 




a 


^ 


00 


II 










< 

w 
u 

p4 




•r 



^ S ^ 



^ <U CO 

a. On ^ 



METRIC SYSTEM 



Ti 


W) 


(j; 


(U 






fl 


ci 


;:^ 


^ 



38 

THE MONETARY UNITS AND STANDARD COINS 
OF FOREIGN COUNTRIES. 

The first section of the act of March 3, 1873, provides 
" that the value of foreign coin, as expressed in the money of 
account of the United States, shall be that of the pure metal 
of such coin of standard value," and that " the value of the 
standard coins in circulation of the various nations of the 
world, shall be estimated annually by the director of the 
mint, and be proclaimed on the first day of January by the 
secretary of the treasury. 

The estimates of values contained in the following table are 
those made by the director of the mint, Jan. i, 1878. 



Country. 



Argen Repub . . 

Austria . 

Belgium 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

British Amer . . 

Bogota 

Central Amer . . 

ChiU 

Cuba 

Denmark 

Ecuador 

Egypt 

France 

Gt. Britain 

Greece 

German Emp . . 

India . 

Italy 

Japan 

Liberia 

Mexico 

Netherlands . . 

Norway 

Paraguay 

Peru 



Monetary 
Unit. 


Standard. 


Peso fuerte 


Gold 


Florin 


Silver 


Franc 


Gold & Silver 


Dollar 


Gold & Silver 


Milreis of 1000 




reis 


Gold 


Dollar 


Gold 


Peso 


Gold. 

Silver 


Dollar 


Peso 


Gold 


Peso 


Gold.. 


Crown 


Gold 


Dollar 


Silver . , 


Pound of icx) 




piasters 


Gold. 


Franc 


Gold & Silver 


Pound sterling 


Gold 


Drachma 


Gold & Silver 


Mark 


Gold 


Rupee, 16 an. . 


Silver 


Lira 


Gold & SUver 

Gold 

Gold 


Yen . ... 


Dollar 


Dollar 


Silver 


Florin 


Silver 


Crown 


Gold 


Peso 


Gold 

Silver 


Sol 



39 

THE MONETARY UNITS— Continued. 



Country. 



Porto Rico. . . 

Portugal 

Russia 

Sandwich Islands 
Spain 



Sweden 

Switzerland . . 

Tripoli 

Tunis. . . . 

Turkey 

Colombia 

Uruguay 



Monetary 
Units. 



Peso 

Mil. looor's . 
Rubles, lOO CO 

Dollar 

Peseta of loo 

centimes , 
Crown .... 

Franc 

Mah. 20 pi's 
Pi's., 16 car, 

Piaster 

Peso 

Patacon . . . , 



Standard. 



Gold., 
Gold. . 
Silver . 
Gold. . 



Gold & Silver 

Gold 

Gold & Silver 

Silver 

Silver 

Gold 

Silver 

Gold 



Value. 



92 5 

1 8 o 

o 73 4 
100 



o 19 
o 26 
o 19 

o 82 

O II 

o 4 
o 91 
o 94 



DIMENSIONS OF AMERICAN ENSIGNS. 



Numbers. 


Head or 
hoist. 


Whole 
length. 


Length of 
union. 




Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


I 


19.00 


36.00 


14.40 


2 


16.90 


32.00 


12.80 


3 


14. So 


28.00 


II .20 


4 


13.20 


25.00 


10.00 


5 


11.60 


22.00 


8.80 


6 


10.00 


19.00 


7.60 


7 


8.45 


16.00 


6.40 


8 


7.40 


14.00 


5.60 


9 


6.33 


12.00 


4.80 


10 


5.28 


10.00 


4.00 


II 


4.20 


8.00 


3.20 


12 


3.70 


7.00 


2.80 


13 


3.20 


6.00 


2.40 


14 


2.50 


5.00 


2.00 



TO DETECT IRON FROM STEEL TOOLS. 
It is diffiult to distinguish between iron and steel tools. 
They have the same polish and workmanship ; use will com- 
monly show the difference. To make the distinction quickly, 
place the tool upon a stone, and drop upon it some diluted nitric 
acid, four parts of water to one of acid. If the tool remains 
clean, it is of iron; if of steel, it will show a black spot where 
touched with the acid. These spots can be easily rubbed off. 



40 
SHIP SIGNALING AT SEA. 



HOW CAPTAINS OF VESSELS " SPEAK ' 
MID OCEAN. 



EACH OTHER IN 



With Eighteen Flags no Fewer than y 0,000 Distinct 
Signals may be Made — Simplicity and Perfection of 
the Process — The importance of Correct Use of the Flags 
— Long Distance Signaling in Which Colors do not 
Count. 

Signaling at sea has been brought to a state of perfection 
that was never dreamed of a quarter of a century ago. What, 
at first blush, might appear a problem insolvable by human 
ingenuity has at length, by dint of patient and painstaking 
investigation, been completely and satisfactorily worked out. 

True is it in this, as in 
all things worth the hav- 
ing, that " Rome was not 
built in a day." The or- 
dinary observer, eloquen 
of the extraordinary fa- 
' cilities effected on terra 
fir ma by the agencies of 
the electric wire and the 
modern and magical tele- 
Fl^P* [ j) Pennant phone, is, perhaps, apt to 
' '' quite overlook the almost 

equally effective triumphs 
of invention on the great thoroughfares of the ocean. Dis- 
tance is bridged by the telegraph, but the non-existence of 
the telegraph is no obstacle to the transmission of messages 
from ship to ship passing each other at sea. 

It is thirty years since the first international code ot sig- 
nals was adopted, and many improvements have been made 
since. England having set the initiative, no less than fifteen 
nations followed suit, and decided to adopt this most perfect 
code. Previous to the conception of the international code 
there existed a multiplicity of codes in a great variety of 
languages, thus creating a confusion at sea only rivaled by 
that which obtained on land at the disastrous building of the 
Tower of Babel. Among all these contending codes the 
most notable was Marryatt's, and this Marryatt is one and 
the same individual with the celebrated author of " Peter 
Simple," " Midshipman Easy," and other stories, which gave 




41 

such unbounded delight to the men of this generation when 
they were schoolboys. 

Ships are spoken at sea by j 
the aid of variously colored 
flags. These are eighteen in 
numoer (not including the an- 
swering pennant), each flag rep- 
resenting a consonant of the 
alphabet, and by a combination ; 
of two, three or four of these 
flags in a hoist arbitrary signs I 
are made which represent 
words and sentences. The flags I 
have three distinct shapes, and 
at the commencement of the ! 
code book are printed in colors, with the consonant of the 
alphabet answering to each flag attached thereto. 

The eighteen flags consist of one burgee, four pennants 
and thirteen square flags. 

By the arrangement of the burgee, pennants and square 
flags specially distinctive characters are given to the signals, 
thus : In signals made with Two Signs — 

The Burgee uppermost represents Atteittion Signals 

A Pennant upper77iost represents Compass Signals 

And a square Flag upper??iost represents. ,Danger Signals 

In signals composed of Four Signs — 

The Burgee upperinost represents Geographical 

A Pennant upperinost represents Vocabulary 

And a square Flag Mpper7?wst represents . Ships'^ Names 





In Distre;^ 
Want A5SistancE 



Three-flag signals are universal and express latitude, 
longitude, time, numeral, ^nd all ordinary signals required for 
communications. 



42 

A captain, by the aid of powerful binocular glasses, sight- 
ing another vessel in the distance, and observing, say, four 
flags flying with a square flag uppermost (N V B Q), would 
immediately turn to that section of the code devoted to the 
names of merchant vessels, and as the letters under this and 
every section are arranged in strictly alphabetical order, he 
would at once discover the approaching vessel to be 



Signal 
letters. 


Name of ship and 
port of registry. 


Rg 

tonnage. 


Horse 
power. 


Official 
No. 


NVBQ 


Germanic, Liverpool 


3,150 1 760 


70,932 



. Possessed of this information the captain would " run up" 
the answering pennant signifying " I see and know you," and 
in turn proceed to hoist four flags indicating the name of his 
own ship, to which the other captain would reply with the 
pennant. The two commanders would then denote by sig- 
nals what ports they were respectively from and bound for 
and number of days out on voyage. These particulars would 
be entered in the log-books of each vessel, with the exact 




V*re or Leak 
WonC 

Immediate 
A.&Sistzince 




latitude and longitude of the rencontre, and on arrival at their 
destinations be duly handed in. 

This signaling of ships when " passing " only occupies a 
brief time to perform, and, as a rule, in ordinary circum- 
stances, this is all the " speaking " that takes place. 

That it is absolutely necessary to " speak " correctly on 
board ship, however the " Queen's English " may be " mur- 
dered " with impunity on shore, is proved by the following 
incident which happened at Cape Town last November : 
The Clan Gordon (s.), having on board seventy-one tons of 



43 

dynamite, was compelled to discharge cargo in the bay 
instead of unloading in the docks in the usual way. While 
the captain of the R. M. S. Athenian was docking his vessel 
he suddenly noticed the two flags " N P " run up the mast- 
head of the Clan Gordon. These flags, according to the 
code, mean " The fire is gaining rapidly; we wish to be taken 
off immediately." The captain of the Athenian replied by 
signal, " Get up steam," then proceeded with two tugs to the 
scene. On arriving on board the Clan Gordon everything 
appeared in perfect order, and nobody was more surprised 
than the quartermaster, who had placed the flags upside 
down — " P N " being the signal for a tug and " N P " that 
the ship was on fire. The captain of the Athenian imme- 
diately returned to the shore and explained to the excited 
crowd that had gathered at the pierhead, " that a slight mis- 
take in marine signaling had been made. " 




Of course the meaning of the signals is given in the code 
book opposite the letters represented by the flags shown at 
the masthead. The number of signals that can be ; made 
with a few signs involves the marvels of permutation. With 
ten flags, hoisting two at a time, ninety signals can be made; 
hoisting three at a time, 720 signals; hoisting four at a time, 
5,040 signals; hoisting five at a time, 30,240 signals. The 
code committee, in fixing on eighteen flags, provided for no 
less than 70,000 distinct signals, with a possible extension to 
78,642, each signal consisting of a hoist of not more than four 
flags; and this provision (as experience has testified) has 
proved amply sufficient. To counteract the obvious difficulty 
of colors of signals not being discernible by reason of distance 
or hazy weather, a code of distant correspondence is inserted 
in the book, and shapes of signals are substituted. 



44 
COMMON NAMES OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES. 

Aqua Fortis Nitric Acid. 

Aqua Regia Nitro-Muriatic Acid. 

^ ^: J"r.^ ;; •; Sulphate of Copper, 



rX^.l ' Bitartrate of Potassium. 

£^X Chloride of Mercury. 

q^l/^i-V,:-- Carbonate of Calcium. 

ctlr- P . Carbonate of Potassa. 

Caustic Potassa Hydrate of Potassium. 

Chloroform. Chloride of Gormyle - 

Common Salt Chloride of Sodium. 

Copperas, or Green Vitriol Sulphate of Iron. 

Corrosive Sublimate Bichloride of Mercury-. 

^^^"\°"^ PureCarbon. 

P^^L"^ Q^^u Sulphate Aluminum and Potassium. 

fe = M-'- • • ; ---Sulphate of Magnesia. 

Ethiops Mineral ....Black Sulphide of Mercury. ' 

Fire Damp Light Carbureted Hydrogen. 

Xr^^^ Sulphide of Lead. 

^^"^«^5-:- Grape Sugar. 

Goulard Water Basic Acetate of Lead. 

Iron Pyrites Bisulphide of Iron. 

Jeweer's Putty Oxide of Tin. 

King > allow Sulphide of Arsenic. 

Laughing Gas Protoxide of Nitrogen. 

1^'"^^- • Oxide of Calcium. 

Lunar Caustic Nitrate of Silver. 

Mosaic Gold^ Bisulphide of Tin. 

I^unate of Lime Chloride of Calcium. 

^.^^^^.^f .Saltpeter Nitrate of Potash. 

Od of Vitriol Sulphuric Acid. 

S°',^^,^-v Oxide of Potassium. 

Red Lead Oxide of Lead. 

Rust of Iron Oxide of Iron. 

If r"i"?°'''^'' Muriate of Ammonia. 

Slacked Lime Hydrate of Calcium, 

Soda . "••'-■'"' Oxide of Sodium. 

Spirits of Hartshorn Ammonia . 

Spirit of Salt. ----•.•..... Hydrochloric or Muriatic Acid. 

Stucco, or Plaster of Pans Sulphate of Lime. 

Sugar of Lead Acetate of Lead. 

^^^^\f."s Basic Acetate of Copper. 

Vermilion Sulphide of Mercury 

vT?f VrrV Acetic Acid (Diluted;. 

Volatile Alkah Ammonia. 

Water Oxide of Hydrogen. 

White Precipitate Ammoniated Mercury- 

White Vitriol Sulphate of Zinc. 

» • AN IMPROVED METHOD OF MOLDING. 

it is claimed that a saving, as well as a better job, can be effected 
by the substitution of the following for the coal dust and charcoal 
used wi^h green sand: Take one part common tar and mix with 
twenty parts of green sand; use the same as ordinary facing The 
castings are smoothed and bright, as tar prevents metal from adhering 
to the sand, prevents formation of blisters, and helps the production r2 
large castings by absorbing the humidity of the sand 



45 
ENGINES OF THE S. S. "CITY OF NEW YORK." 

These engines consist of the two largest sets of triple- 
expansion engines afloat. They are of the usual inverted 
vertical type. The cylinders are 45 in. +47 in+ 1 13 in. + 5 ft. 
stroke. The boiler pressure is 150 Tbs. The screws are 22 ft. 
in diameter, and 28 ft. pitch. They revolve outboard, and 
there is no opening in the dead wood between them. If 
they worked without slip, they would make 218 revolutions 
to the mile, and, at 80 revolutions, which may be taken as 
the standard speed, the ship would steam at 22 knots. With 
a slip of about 9 per cent. , therefore, the speed of the ship 
will be 20 knots. The engines stand side by side with a 
longitudinal bulkhead between them. They are in every 
respect duplicates. A door is provided in the bulkhead 
opposite the intermediate cranks, and the starting platforms 
are opposite the doorway. The reversing gear is Brown's 
patent hydraulic. The engines are quite easily started, 
stopped or reversed by one engineer on each platform. The 
engines are wholly of steel and gun-metal, save the cylinders. 
The great *' A " frames are splendid castings, each weighing 
6 tons, that is 12 tons for each cylinder. The valves are all 
pistons — four being fitted to the low-pressure cylinder, two 
to the intermediate, and one the high-pressure cylinder. 
The eccentric hoops are cast-steel, lined with white metal, as 
are all the bearings throughout. The valves are disposed in 
the " corners," so to speak, and the valve stems are united in 
pairs by crossheads. They work so smoothly, and are so 
perfectly balanced, that the valve gear, wnich is of the 
ordinary Stevenson link type, has really very little to do. 
The surface condei sers are horizontal cylinders lying rather 
high up in the wings. The air pumps are worked by levers 
in the usual way. There are no feed pumps on the main 
engine, the boilers being supplied by five vertical Worthington 
donkey pumps in each engine-room standing against the 
forward bulkhead. Two of these pumps will feed the boilers, 
but the others are for reserve, or for the countless pumping 
jobs wanted in a big ship. The engines actually employed at 
any time in feeding the boilers are controlled by an automatic 
arrangement, a float in the hot well rising or falling with the 
level of the water in the well, and opening or shutting the 
throttle valve, an arrangement which is, so far as we are 
aw^are, quite new in marine work, and found to answer 
admirably, the donkey remaining steadily at work, instead of 
tearing away for a few minutes, emptying the hot well, and 
then having to stand until the well fills again. It would be 



46 

difficult, if not impossible, to find more admirable examples , 
of the highest type of mechanical engineering than are supplied 
by the splaidid -main engines. They have been constructed 
throughout from the designs of Mr. Parker. Mr. Parker has 
brought to bear on his task a life-long experience. He was 
for some years second engineer of the great paddle steamer 
" Persia," with side-lever engines. Mr. Parker^s familiarity 
withalL the difficulties and trials which beset the sea-going 
engineer, has stood him in good stead ; and the engines of the 
" City of New York" will maintain the fame of Scotch engineers 
in the New and Old World. Nothing finer can be imagined 
than the working of these gigantic engines, with a piston speed 
of 800 ft. per minute — certainly the , greatest velocity ever 
attained by pistons 9 ft. 5 in. in diameter. During the whole 
run round Ireland, lasting nearly forty-six hours, not a drop 
of water was needed on a bearing, nor was there the least 
symptom of heating. 

An important experiment is being carried out in the 
" City of New York. " Although she is much larger than the 
" Umbria" and " Etruria," and is intended to be faster than 
either, she has less boiler power. The " Etruria " has 72 
furnaces. The " City of New York " has only 54 disposed 
is nine double-ended boilers, and containing 1,250 square feet 
of grate surface. The apparent deficiency is met, first, by 
the use of triple-expansion engines, which should be about 
20 per cent, more economical than the three-cylinder com- 
pound engines of the " Etruria ; " and, secondly, by the use 
of forced draught. The nine boilers are placed in three 
stoke-holes. The boilers are fired fore and aft, and no direct 
communication between the boiler compartments exists. 
Access can be had to each only by ladders and hydraulic hoists. 
Instead of the usual forest of cowl ventilators, there are 
erected at each side of the upper deck six large rectangular 
structures of heavy plate iron fitted with shield lids, which 
can be raised or lowered by screw gear. % When dropped 
down, a sufficient space exists for the entry of air. In fine 
weather they are raised to an inclined position, and deflect air 
down the trunks. These trunks reach down to the fire- 
rooms, and each is provided at the bottom with a fan about 
5 ft. 6 in. in diameter driven by a separate engine at about 
500 revolutions per minute. These fans deliver one at each 
side of the ship into the six stoke-holes, in which they can 
maintain a plenum of about J^in. water pressure. So far 
the result of the experiment is all that can be desired. 
During her trial trip the pressure of 150 Tbs. was maintained 
in the boilers.^ The engines made, one 82 and the other 83, 



47 

revolutions per minute, and a speed of over 20 knots was 
attained with about 18,500 horse-power. No precise data 
as to power or speed have, however, been officially given. 
There is every reason to believe that, when the engine and 
fire-room hands have thoroughly settled dovni to their work, 
20,000 horse-power, or a little more, will be obtained. 

A SIMPLE OIL FILTER. 

A cheap and very serviceable oil filter may 
be made as follows : 

Take a barrel or keg, with both heads 
in, of sufficient size to hold the oil you 
wish to cleanse. Run a pipe in at the 
bottom, and lead it off to an overhead tank 
that is filled with water, and from which 
water can be brought down to- the barrel. 
From the top head of the barrel, lead a pipe 
up to and into the bottom of a smaller cask 
or tank placed on the barrel. In this tank 
put two perforated partitions, six or eight 
inches apart, and fill the space between them 
with charcoal. In the top of the small tank 
put the faucet for drawing off the oil. In 
the bottom head of the barrel, have a hand- 
hole for cleaning. 

The pressure of the water from the upper 
tank forces the oil up and through the filter- 
ing material in the small tank. In this way 
the oil is filtered upward, and all the heavy 
matter will fall to the bottom of the barrel, 
from which it can be readily removed. 

HEATING RAILROAD CARS., 
Between twenty and thirty railroad companies are intro- 
ducing specific forms of heating cars, and out of the variety 
of devices there will certainly be evolved one practicable 
method. One system uses hot water, which is forced though, 
pipes, another hot air. One scheme is to use pressure, and 
another to use an exhaust. The mechanical difficulties in the 
way cannot be easily overcome. It has been estimated that 
it will cost $10 a year per car for heat. It has been shown 
that fifty pounds of exhaust steam, circulated by the suction 
system, is as effectual as seventy-five pounds of live steam cir- 
culated by the pressure system. 




48 
SWITCHING FROM THE ENGINE CAB. 

A device that will enable the engineer, from his cab, to 
switch his locomotive at pleasure, while the conductor on 
the caboose or rear car closes the switch again^ would surely 
be a novelty in railroading, amounting to a revolution. Yet 
a Cleveland inventor claims to have solved the problem, and 
to be able to demonstrate its practicability with a working 
model. Not to go into the details, it may be sufficient to 
say that the " central throw " switch is shifted by a double- 
flanged shoe, of any length, dropped from beneath any front 
or rear truck, while the train is in motion, first overthrowing 
the crank that draws the lock-plate off the fixed rail, then 
moving the lug of the angle connected with the fly-rail to the 
right or left, as indicated by the target on the engine or 
caboose, after which the lock slides forward and grasps the 
fixed rail, holding the " fly " in alignment, making a continuous 
rail. Thus, a switch is carelessly left open, and a passenger 
train is approaching. The engineer detects the danger ; the 
improvised " shoe " is dropped to the rail ; it strikes the lug, 
the switch is closed, and, a collision avoided. On the other 
hand, a train may be side-tracked by the same simple 
operation from the cab. Of course, this would do away with 
switchmen and frog accidents, and a great many other disad- 
vantages incident to the present method, should the invention 
come into practical use. This, necessarily is yet to be dem- 
onstrated by actual test, under varying conditions, before 
success can be confidently claimed ; but the device is certainly 
of general interest. 

RAILROAD SIGNALS. 

The following signals, taken from the " Standard Code," 
are in use on a majority of American railroads. Explanation: 
O means short, quick sound; — means long sound. 

Apply brakes, stop O 

Release brakes O O 

Back O O O 

Highway crossing signal O, or O O 

Approaching stations — blast lasting five sec. 

Call for switchman O O O O 

Cattle on track 

Train has- parted. — O 

Forfuel. O O O O O 

Bridge or tunnel warning O O — 

Fire aiarm — OOOO 

Will take side track — 



49 

WHEN COAL Wx\S FIRST USED ON AMERICAN 

RAILROADS. 

The New York Central initiated this movement in 1858. 
In that year six locomotives were run between New York 
and Poughkeepsie, using coal for generating motive power, 
and two between Poughkeepsie and Albany burned coal. 
The superintendent at that time, Mr. A. F. Smith, reported 
that it cost but one-fourth as much to drive the trains by 
coal as it did to drive them by wood combustion. His inves- 
tigation showed that, by a train of 21 freight cars, in making 
a trip from Poughkeepsie to New York and back again, a 
distance of 144 miles, 6^ cords of pine wood, costing $40. 15, 
were consumed, while to make the same trip with a coal- 
burning locomotive, only 4,193 pounds of coal were con- 
snmed, costing $10.48, and that it required only $9.04 worth 
of coal to drive an express train from New York to Pough- 
keepsie and back again. When these facts were verified, the 
wood-burning engines had to go. 

LARGE MILEAGE OF A LOCOMOTIVE. 

A passenger locomotive on the Columbus & Cincinnati 
Midland, No. 4, built by the Schenectady Locomotive Works, 
was put into service September 9, 1884, and worked con- 
tinuously until January 20, 1888, when she broke a parallel 
rod and both back pins. If this accident had not occurred, 
the engine would have continued in service some time longer, 
there being nothing absolutely needed in the way of repairs, 
except turning off the tires. It was probably the " flange on 
both sides " of the tire that caused her to catch on a curve 
and twist her pins off. During this time her mileage was 
185,483 miles, not including mileage at terminal stations, to 
and from the depots and round-house. The engine had never 
been laid up for repairs during that time, had nb flues re- 
moved, nor been off her wheels at all, had in fact been in 
constant service with nothing but the" simple ordinary repairs 
necessary at the end of each trip. 

PARCHMENT FOR AXLE BEARINGS. 

Experiments are being made on Prussian railways with 
.xle boxes fitted with bearings of vegetable parchment in 
place of brass. The parchment is strongly compressed before 
being used, and it is thoroughly dried to prevent subsequent 
shrinkage. Wooden rings are placed on the outside of the 
bearings, fitting the collars, of the journal. An emulsion of 



50 

water and oil and all the mineral oils are used as lubricants. 
The parchment soon becomes impregnated with oil, and is 
able to go a long time without a renewal of lubrication. It 
is between the body of the journal and the thin edge of the 
parchment segments that friction takes place. The claim is 
made that the compressed paper bearings make a tough 
material that is superior to metal. Such bearings are 
also in use in a German saw-mill^ with satisfactory opera- 
. tion. 

BOATS DRAWN BY A LOCOMOTIVE. 

An experiment, which is looked upon as a success, was 
recently made on the Shropshire Union Canal, at Worleston, 
by the officials of the London & Northwestern Railway. A 
set of rails, of i8-inch gauge, was laid down on the bank of 
the canal for a distance of a mile, and a small locomotive 
from the Crewe Railway Works drew along easily, at the rate 
of seven miles an hour, two boats by means of ropes. The 
size and weight of the boats are not given. How many cars, 
and how much freight the locomotive could draw on the 
track, is not stated. 

TEST OF LOCOMOTIVE FUEL. 

An important test of locomotive fuel was made on the 
main line of the P. & R., and the result determined the style 
of thirty new locomotives. The engines selected were what 
is known as a wagon top boiler and narrow fire box, and the 
latter a Wootten boiler and fire box. Each engine hauled 
the same load. The wagon top boiler used 26,600 pounds 
of steamboat coal, costing $2.45 per ton, in making the 
round trip, and the Wooten consumed 32,500 pounds of 
buckwheat coal, costing sixty cents a ton, or a difference in 
favor of the Wootten of $20.49. 

QUANTITY OF ALCOHOL IN WATER. 

The quantity of olcohol contained in rain, snow and sea 
waters may be estimated at from one to several millionths. 
Cold water and melted snow seem to contain more of it than 
tepid waters. In the waters of the Seine (France) it is found 
in appreciable quantities, also in all waters excepting the 
purest spring water, and in sewage waters the proportion 
increases very perceptibly. Vegetable mold is quite rich in 
it ; indeed, it is quite likely that alcohol, in its natural state, 
had its origin in the soil, through the fermentation of the 
organic matters contained therein. 



51 

HOW FAST CAN A LOCOMOTIVE RUN? 

Popular opinion concerning the maximum speed at which 
a locomotive can run, even among engineers, is very vaacie. 
The subject is little understood, and rash assertions are some- 
times made in consequence. We have ourselves heard ^t 
asserted by those who ought to know better that a speed of ovei* 
icx> miles an hour could easily be reached with a light engine, 
and recently there was built a French engine intended to run 
regularly at eighty miles an hour. Now, as a matter of fact, 
there is no properly recorded instance of an engine attaining a 
greater velocity than eighty miles an hour, which was reached 
by one of Mr. Pearson's broad-gauge tank engines with 9 ft. 
drivers on the Bristol and Exeter Railway. The engine was 
run light, and driven down an incline of one in eighty-nine, and 
a speed of seventy-eight miles an hour was attained under pre- 
cisely similar conditions with one coach attached. 

Mr. Marten fully confirms the viev/ we have taken that 
speeds of more than eighty miles an hour are mythical. At 
first sight there does not appear to be any adequate reason 
why this should be the case. Given plenty of steam, a good 
road and a falling gradient, and an engine which, with a heavy 
train behind it, will make seventy-two miles an hour, appar- 
ently ought, when running without a load, to attain a much 
higher velocity. In this case, however, conclusions drawn 
from theory are wrong, and, as we have said, a speed of eighty 
miles an hour seems to be the utmost that it is possible to 
attain under any circumstances. 

The resistance of the air is very great. It is the same thing 
whether the engine runs through still air at eighty miles an 
hour, or, when itself standing, is submitted to the action of a 
furious hurricane — for that is what a wind blowing at eighty 
miles an hour is very properly called. Such a current will 
exert a force of about thirty-two pounds per square foot. If 
we take the area of the smoke box, funnel, weather board, 
etc., of a locomotive as equal fifty square feet, we have for the 
air alone a resistance of 50X32 = 1,600 pounds, which may be 
tak .n for an ord'r^ary express engine, with seven foot wheels and 
eighteen '.nor cylinders, as equivalent to about sixteen pounds 
per square Inch average effective cylinder pressure alone. 
But this is only one of the retarding influences with which we 
have to deal. Another of very much greater proportion is 
the back pressure in the cylinders. The steam cannot be got 
out fast enough through any available port. A seven foot wheel 
makes 240 revolutions per mile, and, when running at eiglity 
miles an hour, 320 per minute. Thus there must be from eacn 



52 

cylinder 640 exhausts per minute, or over 10 per second, or for 
the two cylinders 21 per second. The cylinder full of steam 
IS .therefore allowed only the tenth part of a second to get out; 
asfid it is not remarkable that the back pressure is something 
^ery considerable. At the time of the celebrated brake trials 
^at Trent, the loads were in all cases thirteen coaches, and very 
different engines were employed to pull them. Each engine 
had a run of three miles on a level allowed it in which to get 
up speed, but during the whole time the trials lasted a velocity 
of sixty miles an hour was never attained. It w^as found that 
most of the di'ivers worked their engines near the middle notch 
while on the three miles to save steam. The moment they got 
on the trial gi'ound they put the lever forw^ard a couple of 
notches, intending to get more speed ; but the result was in- 
variably to choke the engine with steam and reduce the speed. 
Unquestionably the great obstacle in the way of attaining a 
higher velocity than eighty miles an hour lies in the» difficulty 
of getting rid of the steam; and this is the reason why com- 
pound engines do not readily attain very great velocities, be- 
cause for a given power they have larger piston areas than 
have non-compound locomotives. There are, however, other 
retarding forces at work. Much power must, no doubt, be 
lost in imparting violent motions to masses of metal which can 
make no return when coming to rest. The swinging of the 
engine, the excessive vibration of all its parts, and the jar and 
concussion, all operate to the same end, and tend to keep 
down speed. 

DETECTION OF HOT BEARINGS. 

M. Gerboz has devised an apparatus by which an audible 
and visible signal is given to the engineer if any part of the 
machinery to which the apparatus is fitted should become 
unduly heated. In its simplest form, as applied to the crank- 
pin of a steam engine^ the device consists of a small cylinder 
fastened to and projecting from the crank-pin, and containing 
a plug of easily fusible alloy, which is pressed against the end 
of the crank-pin by a perforated piston and spring. The 
piston-rod, by means of a lever, controls a catch belonging to 
the mechanism of a bell placed over the apparatus. The 
gear of the bell, which is actuated by spring power, is pre- 
viously wound up by hand and locked by the catch. If the 
crank-pin should become heated, the fusible plug melts, thus 
allowing the piston to descend, thereby releasing the catch 
and sounding the bell. In addition to this audible signal, a 
disc hidden underneath the bell is turned in such a position that 
a bright color is seen through two holes in the dish of the bell* 



53 
POINTS FOR ENGINEERS. 

When using a jet condenser, let the engine make three or 
four revolutions before opening the injection valve, and 
then open it gradually, letting the engine make several more 
revolutions before it is opened to the full amount required. 

Open the main stop valve before you start the fires un- 
der the boilers. | _" 

When starting fires, don't forget to close Itie gauge- 
cocks and safety-valve as soon as steam begins to form. 

An old Turkish towel, cut in two lengthwise, is better 
than cotton waste for cleaning brass work. 

Always connect your steam valves in such a manner that 
the valve closes against the constant steam pressure. 

Turpentine, well mixed with black varnish, makes a good 
coating for iron smoke pipes. ^ 

Ordinary lubricating oils are not suitable for use in pre- 
venting rust. 

You can make a hole through glass by covering it with a 
thin coating of wax — by warming the glass and spreading 
the wax on it, scrape off the wax where you want the hole, 
and drop a little fluoric acid on the spot with a wire. The 
acid will cut a hole through the glass, and you can shape 
the hole with a copper wire covered with oil and rotten- 
stone. 

A mixture of one (i) ounce of sulphate of copper, one- 
quarter (%) of an ounce of alum, half (^) a teaspoonful of 
powdered salt, one (i) gill of vinegar and twenty (20) drops 
of nitric acid will make a hole in steel that is too hard to 
cut or file easily. Also, if applied to steel and washed off 
quickly, it will give the metal a beautiful frosted appear- 
ance. 

It is a fact that thirty-five cubic feet of sea water is equal in 
weight to thirty-six feet of fresh water, the weight being one 
ton (2,240 pounds). 

Remember that coal loses from ten (10) to forty (40) per- 
centum of its evaporative power if exposed to the influence 
of sunshine and rain. 

Those who have had experience think that for lubricat- 
ing purposes palm nut oil cannot be surpassed, for the rea- 
son that it does not gum or waste; neither does friction 
remove it readily from the surfaces where it is applied, and 
its use is exceedingly economical. The best cylinder oils 
produce no better effect. 

If you are obliged to make use of such a barbarism as a 
rust joint, mix ten (10) parts by weight of iron filings, and 



54 

three (3) parts of chloride of lime with enough water to 
make a paste. Put the mixture between the pieces to be 
joined, and bolt firmly together. 

Too much bearing surface in a journal is sometimes worse 
than too little. 

Steel hardened in water loses in strength — but hardening 
in oil increases its strength, and adds to its toughness. 



COST OF RAILROAD TRAVEL. 

In Europe the first-class travel is exceedingly small, and 
the third class constitutes the large portion of the passenger 
business, while in America almost the whole of the travel is 
first-class. The following table gives a comparison between 
the rates per mile in the leading countries of the world: 





First 
class. 


Second 
class. 


Third 
class. 


United Kingdom 


Cents. 

3.86 
3.10 
2.18 


Cents. 
3.20 
2.88 
2.32 


Cents. 

1.94 
2.08 


France 


Germany 


1.54 


United States 







In the State of New York, the first-class fare does not 
exceed two cents, which is about equal to the third-class fare 
in Europe, and heat, good ventilation, ice-water, toilet 
arrangements, and free carriage of a liberal amount of bag- 
gage are supplied, while in Europe few of these comforts are 
furnished. On the elevated railroads of New York a pas- 
senger can ride in a first-class car eleven miles for five cents, 
or about one-half cent a mile, and on surface roads the rates 
given to suburban passengers are, in some cases, still less. 

A HERO OF THE THROTTLE. 

In a recent accident at Huntingdon, Engineer Robert 
Gardner, perceiving that a collision between his own train and 
another was inevitable, staid at his post, kept his hands on 
the throttle and brake, and so met his death. While being 
lifted from the wreck, he asked if any of his " passengers " 
had been killed, and, when informed that they had all escaped, 
he said, regardless of his own mortal hurt : " That's good ; 
lay me down. Good-bye, boys." 



55 
THE MANUFACTURE OF LOCOMOTIVES. 

It is nearly fifty years since locomotive building was 
inaugurated, and, when fairly beyond the experimental stage, 
more men were required in the work per locomotive per 
annum than are now required. The locomotive of that 
time cost nearly as much as the standard locomotive of the 
present day, while the latter is, on the average, three or four 
times as heavy, even more powerful in proportion, and incom- 
parably superior in finish to the former. 

In 1832, the "Old Ironsides" was built by Mr. M. W. 
Baldwin. It was modeled after the English " Planet " type, 
with a stiff wooden frame and inside connections. Up to 
1840 most Baldwin engines were built with inside connec- 
tions, as were also the earlier Rogers engines; but outside 
connections afterward became more generally approved, 
inside-connected engines having now become practically 
obsolete. Mr. Thos. Rogers was an early advocate of out- 
side connections, and in 1837 filed in the patent office a 
specification for counterbalancing, which was not in general 
use until some years later, and even then was considered less 
essential to the inside than to the outside connected engines. 
In 1839, in Mr. Baldwin's practice, the outside frame was 
abandoned, and the machinery, truck and pedestals of the 
driving-axles were attached directly to the boiler From 
that time the wood parts of the frame were gradually dis- 
placed by iron. About 1839 equalizing beams were used on 
the Eastwick and Harrison engines, some method being neces- 
sary to distribiiffe the weight upon the two pairs of drivers 
then introduced. In 1841, Mr. Baldwin built some engines 
for freight traffic with the drivers geared, but in 1842 his six- 
wheel connected engine met with more favor. In this the 
four forward wheels had inside journals running in boxes 
held by wide and deep wrought-iron beams, one on each 
side and disconnected, the engine frame on each side having 
a spherical pin bearing in a socket midway between the axles 
of the frame. The cylindrical boxes used could also turn in 
the pedestals, and the connecting-rods and ball-and-socket 
joints, with play enough to allow the engine to pass short 
curves. 

The driving-wheels of " Old Ironsides " had cast-iron 
hubs, wooden spokes and wrought-iron tires, and the 
driving-axle was placed in front of the fire-box. The 
" half-crank " for inside-connected engines was patented by 
Mr. Baldwin in 1834. The " E. L. Miller" (1834) had 
driving-wheels of solid bell-metal, which soon wore out, 



5^ 

but later, driving-wheels were built with hubs and spokes 
in single iron casting, and wood felloes, breaking joint 
in thickness, and bound with wrought -iron tires, secured 
by bolts. In 1834, Mr. Baldwin built his engines with driv- 
ing-axle back of the fire-box, and Mr. Norris built engines 
with drivers in front. The latter plan gave the greater ad- 
hesion, and the greater wheel base. To obtain the necessary- 
adhesion, Mr. Baldwin had recourse to the Miller patent for 
throwing part of the weight of the tender upon the drivers 
of the engine. It was at this time considered impracticable 
to cast a chilled car or truck wheel in one solid piece, 
and the hubs were cast in three pieces and banded together 
with wrought-iron, the interstices being filled with lead or 
spelter. The " Brandywine," Baldwin's eighteenth engine 
(1835), had brass tires to give more adhesion, but they 
soon wore out. Mr. Rogers began the manufacture of 
wrought-iron tires in 1834, but in 1838 S. Vail & Co., Mor- 
ristown, New Jersey, are said to have been the only Amer- 
ican manufacturers of tires, which were then made only i^ 
inches thick. In 1838 Mr. Baldwin began using chilled 
wheels for trucks, the truck-wheels having previously been 
made with tires, and in 1836 Mr. H. R. Campbell patented 
an eight-wheel engine, with two pairs of driving-axles, one 
before and one behind the fire-box. This combined the 
plans of Messrs. Norris and Baldwin, and, with the addition 
of equalizing springs, was substantially of the same type as 
the standard American locomotive of to-day. The last 
half-crank engine was built at the Baldwin works in 1849. 
Steel axles were tried as an experiment about^this time, and 
chilled tires for drivers began to be used a few years later. 
The use of steel tires shrunk upon the center was not 
begun until after i860. These tires were then imported. 
In 1863 the Rogers works built their first engine of the 
" Mogul" type (three pairs of drivers with a pony truck), 
and the first engine of the " Consolidation " type (four pairs 
of drivers with pony truck) was built by the Baldwin works 
in 1866. In these large freight locomotives some of the 
many drivers are made without flanges, to facilitate the 
turning of curves^ In 1870 the practice of shrinking on 
steel tires w^ithout the use of bolts or rivets, was begun at the 
Baldwin works in building some locomotives for the Kapsas 
Pacific Railroad. ^ 

In 1868 the introduction of narrow-gauge roads began to 
create a demand for suitable locomotives. Some of these 
narrow-gauge locomotives have been built of a weight of 
not less than twenty-five net tons, and, in the past decade, 



57 

the manufacture of steam and compressed-air street car and 
motors has been fairly inaugurated. 

The use of four-wheeled swiveling-trucks was one of the 
features which characterized the American, as distinguished 
from the English locomotives; but one of the most notable 
improvements of American practice, was the invention of 
Mr. Baldwin of ground steam joints, instead of joints made 
of canvas and red lead, then the English practice. With 
this change the steam pressure was raised from 60 to 120 
pounds. 

" Old Ironsides " had a loose eccentric for each cylinder. 
These loose eccentrics were reversed by pin in a stop on the 
axle working in a half-circular slot. This was changed for 
a fixed eccentric for each cylinder, with rods extending from 
the eccentric strap to the arms of a rock-shaft beneath the 
foot-board of the engine, the reversal being affected by 
shifting the connection between the rods and Ae rock-shaft 
arms. In these early engines fixed eccentrics were com- 
monly used, but Seth Boyden's " Essex " (1838) had valves 
worked without eccentrics, moving by levers from the 
cross-heads, each cross-head communicating motion to the 
opposite cylinder. In 1838 Mr. Baldwin adopted the use 
of double eccentrics, each terminated by a straight hook, 
and reversed by a lever, He used, under specification, a 
form of link motion in 1840, and in 1842 a link motion sim- 
ilar to that used by Stephenson. 

(The link motion had been used by Wm. T. Jamco, of 
iNew York, in 1832.) In 1845 Mr. Baldwin adopted the 
half-stroke cut-off, in which there were two slides operated 
by separate eccentrics, the cut-off eccentrics bemg set at 
half stroke. The same year Mr. Rogers began using inde- 
pendent cut-off valves, operated by various combinations of 
links and V-hooks, and in 1850 he introduced the present 
form of shifting link. Meanwhile Mr. Baldwin continued 
experimenting, introducing several forms of variable forms 
of cut-off, one of which had a wrapping connection and 
a quadrant and curved link, for varying the position of the 
block. He then used the " Cuyahoga " cut-off, with lever 
and shifting link. Finally, in 1857, after putting on a num- 
ber of them, under specification, he adopted the present 
form of link motion. 

The " Old Ironsides " had a D-shaped smoke-box with 
side concaved, to make room for cylinders. The boiler was 
thirty inches in diameter, with seventy-two one and one- 
half inch copper tubes seven feet long. The " Sandusky " 
(Rogers, 1837) had a bonnet smoke-stack with deflecting cone, 



S8 

Most of the early engines had high domes over the fire-boxes. 
In 1835 Mr. Baldwin commenced the practice of driving 
copper ferrules on the outside of the copper tubes, to make 
a tight joint with the tube-sheet, instead of, as before, 
driving the ferrule or thimble inside the tube. At present, 
with iron tubes and copper ferrules, the end is swaged down, 
the copper ferrule brazed on, and the iron projecing end 
turned or riveted over the ferrule and tube-sheet. For cop- 
per tubes, wrought-iron thimbles had also been used. These 
were found liable to leak, but about 1850 this defect was 
obviated by the use of cast-iron thimbles, a device by Mr. 
W. S. Hudson. In 1844 iron flues or tubes were first used 
in the Baldwin engines. Morris, Tasker & Co. had made 
lap-welded tubes in 1838 — butt-welded prior to that year; 
and Rass Winans had also made iron tubes by hand for his 
locomotives. Experiment showed no appreciable advantage to 
copper over iron tubes. Mr. Rogers first used expansion 
plates to provide for lengthening the boiler under steam, and 
about 1850 the wagon-top was substituted for the dome 
boilers. Prior to this time there had been many experi- 
ments, with the view of burning anthracite coal, and in 
1854 deflectors in the fire-box began to be used, sheet-iron 
water leg and fire brick deflectors being tried. In 1856 
there was built at the Baldwin works for the Pennsylvania 
railroad, locomotives with straight boilers having two domes, 
and in 1859 locomotives having "Dimpfel" water-tube 
boilers were built for the Philadelphia, Wilmington & 
Baltimore railroad. Fire-boxes of low steel began to be 
built in 1 86 1, and had come into general use in 1866; in 
1868 all steel boilers (fire-boxes, barrels and tubes) were 
built by the Pennsylvania railroad. In present practice both 
straight and wagon-top boilers are built. In 1876 steel 
boilers, with corrugated sides, were built at the Baldwin 
v/orks for the Central Railroad of New Jersey. 
#The " Old Ironsides " had 9 ^ by 18 inch cylinders, the 
'• Sandusky" had ii by 16 inch cylinders. In 1840 the larger 
Baldwin pattern had 12^ by 16 inch cylinders. The " Gov. 
Paine," a fast passenger engine (1849), had 17X by 20 inch 
cylinder, and in 1852 a freight locomotive weighing 56,000 
pounds, had 18 by 22 inch cylinders. The first "Consoli- 
dation" engine (1866) had 20 by 24 inch cylinders, and the 
"UncleDick" (1878) had 20 by 26 inch cylinders. The cylin- 
ders of the early engines were generally inclined, but by 1865 
horizontal engines had become the rule. Mr. Baldwin was 
the first American manufacturer to use an outside cylinder, 
which was made with a circular flange bolted to the boiler. 



59 

In i8$2, on some engines for the Mine Hill Railroad, these 
flanges were brought around, nearly meeting, with only a 
spark-box between them, and later each cylinder and half- 
saddle was cast in one piece, and the saddles set face to face, 
and, when horizontal cylinders came into general use, the 
rights and lefts were made interchangeable. 

The early engines had neither cabs nor sand-boxes. 
Cabs were first used in New England, and the first Baldwin 
engines provided with sand-boxes were built in 1846, 

" Old Ironsides " was estimated to draw thirty tons gross 
forty miles an hour on the level. In 1838 Mr. Baldwin 
believed that an engine weighing 26,000 pounds, loaded, 
and with I2j^ by 16 inch cylinders, was as heavy as would 
ever be called for ; but the requirements of heavy freight and 
passenger service demanded, for economy no less than for 
convenience, larger and stronger engines, the heaviest ever 
built at the Baldwin works ("Uncle Dick," 1^78) weigh- 
ing, with water in the tank, 115,000 pounds. In 1849, at 
the Baldwin works, there were built a number of fast pas- 
senger engines of the type of the " Gov. Paine " (Vermont 
Central Railroad), which could start from rest and run a 
mile in forty-three seconds ; but these engines lacked suffi- 
cient adhesion. Within the past few years some attention 
has been given to the manufacture of fast passenger loco- 
motives, a number having been built which, with light 
trains, will run sixty miles or more an hour. Of these, a 
locomotive for the Round Brook line has a single pair of 6)4 
foot drivers and a patent arrangement for varying the distri- 
bution of the weight between the drivers and a pair of trail- 
ing-wheels. 

At the Brooks Locomotive Works the average weight of 
locomotives built in 1869 was 28 ton for passenger and 30 ton 
for freight engines ; but the average is now 35 tons for pas- 
senger and 42 tons for freight engines, showing the rapid 
increase in weight, and it is believed by many that 50-ton 
consolidated engines will soon become the prevailing type 
and size for American freight service. 

Examples of the performance of engines might be given 
at great length and in great variety. For the Baldwin 
engine the loads are calculated on the basis of the utilization 
for adhesion of fully one-fourth of the weight of the driving 
wheels. A standard " American type " passenger locomo- 
tive, with 35,000 pounds on the driving-wheels, will pull one 
thousand tons gross on a level, and on one, two, and three per 
cent grades will pull 25 j^, I2>^ and 7^ per cent of that load 
respectively; a consolidated engine, with 94,000 pounds on 



6o 

the driving wheels, will pull 2,740 tons gross on a level, and 
on one, two and three per cent grades will pull 26^, 13X, 
and 8 per cent of that load respectively. In some hea\'y 
freight and switching engines the entire load is upon the 
driving-wheels, consolidation locomotives having usually 85 to 
88 per cent, moguls So to 85 per cent, standard American 
passenger locomotives 60 to 70 per cent, " double-enders " 
about 50 per cent, and fast passenger locomotives as little as 
35 to 40 per cent, of their total weight upon the driving- 
wheels. 

The endurance of an engine in service is very great, but 
the necessary repairs will average from i ^ to 6 or 7 cents 
per mile, accordmg to the service. Steel tires last from 
six to seven years before they wear out. In the transitional 
stage of locomotive building, engines capable of much longer 
service were not infrequently broken up, laid aside, or made 
over on account of the introduction of improvements in 
design. At present the high quality of material and of 
workmanship promises a degree of endurance which A^dll 
require many years to ascertain, and the uniformity of parts 
cannot fail to lessen the cost of repairs. It must, however, 
be remembered that the service required of a locomotive is 
much heavier and more exacting than it was ten years ago, 
cars often being loaded twice as heavily, and the weight of 
trains actually drawn averaging nearly twice as heavy for the 
spme size of locomotive. 

The present American locomotive may fairly be con- 
sidered an established criterion of excellence. It is char- 
acterized by accuracy and beauty of workmanship and 
strength, combined with flexibility and adaptability to many 
difficult conditions of service — an adaptability that has 
given it the precedence where such conditions have to be 
met. Although the demands of railroad travel and traffic in 
this countr\' have absorbed the greater part of the product, 
American locomotives have been supplied to foreign coun- 
tries using railroads in such numbers as to make them an 
important factor in the extension of facilities of travel and 
communication abroad. 

The manufacture of locomotives in locomotive-works is 
so far based upon the use of costly and partly finished 
materials, that the additional labor and expense involve less 
than one half the value of the finished product. The iron 
and steel plates, steel tires, sheet-brass and iron, copper pipe, 
smoke and feed pipes, chilled wheels, bolts, rivets,*hard- 
ware, fittings, boiler tubes, flues, and other materials are in 
themselves costly products, and some of the forgings and 



the steel and iron castings are often produced for the work 
by separate establishments having special facilities. On the 
whole, the raw material, properly speaking, has its value 
more than trebled before it is brought into the locomotive 
works as material for the manufacture. In comparing the 
manufacture of locomotives with the manufacture of small 
engines or sewing machines, where the value of material in 
locomotive manufacture is doubled, in that of small engines 
it is nearly trebled, and in sewing machines quadrupled ; but 
in locomotives the same increment of added value requires 
the employment of a considerably greater number of 
artisans (at similar rates of wages) than are employed in the 
manufacture of small engines ; principally because the prices 
of locomotives are ruled by the wholesale purchase of large 
railroad corporations, while the prices of small engines and 
machinery are ruled to a great degree by small buyers making 
single purchases. In short, in the manufacture of locomo- 
tives, the cost of putting the product upon the market is 
reduced to a minimum, and of the same added value given in 
the manufacture and marketings of about 50 per cent, addi- 
tional goes for the employment of artisans in locomotive 
building, as compared with the general manufacture of 
steam engines. The composition by weight of the various 
crude and finished materials in a locomotive and tender 
weighing about 45 tons (net) may be stated as follows: 
About 32 per cent, pig-iron, 18 per cent, bar and hammered 
iron, 9 per cent, boiler-iron and steel (about one-fifth of 
which is for the fire-box), 8j4 per cent, steel tires, slides, 
springs and the like; 7 per cent, wheels; 7 per cent, wood 
for cab, tender and lagging, 5 per cent, axles and connecting 
rods, 4 per cent, flues, 3^ per cent, tank-iron; 2 per cent, 
lead, tin, copper, smoke pipe, glass, hardware and fittings; 
1% per cent, bolts and rivets, i K per cent, cast and sheet 
brass, and i per cent, sheet-iron. 

The market value of a locomotive in 1880 was less than 
three-fourths as great as it was in 1870, the descent in value 
being very gradual, with the exception of a very notable rise 
in 1873, and a slighter appreciation in value after 1879. 
These fluctuations have mamly followed the general shrink- 
age of money values, and the fluctuations in the cost of 
materials, influences great enough to conceal any evidences 
of improvement in the methods of manufacture such as 
might^here be looked for. Nevertheless, there has been a 
very general advance in the details of system and machinery, 
which is confirmed in aggregate results of the capability of a 
given number of men to perform a given work. 



62 

It is the growing practice to make all the parts of 
locomotives interchangeable. The general growth of the 
"interchangeable system" in manufacturing has had an 
influence in the development of manufacturing, agricultural, 
and other industries which few have heretofore appreciated. 
It may not be too much to say that, in some respects, this 
system has been one of the chief influences in the rapid in- 
crease of the national wealth. Two of the great industries 
that constitute the basis of this wealth, agriculture and 
manufactures, depend now largely on the existence of this 
remarkable feature of manufacturing, which has reached its 
highest development in this country. The growth of the 
system is due to the inventive characteristics of our people, 
and their peculiar habit of seeking the best and most simple 
methods of accomplishing results by machinery, untram- 
meled by traditions or hereditary habits and customs. 

PISTON EXPLOSIONS. 

The piston of a steam engine is not at first sight a likely 
part to give way through explosion. But there are cases on 
record where hollow pistons, on being heated for removal 
from the rod, have unexpectedly exploded. Such explosions 
of hollow cast-iron pistons have recently been the subject of 
special attention in France, the fact appearing that no less 
than five such explosions have occurred in French workshops 
during the last twenty years in re-heating these pistons. In 
examining into the interior of a piston that had been in use 
for eleven years, there was shown the existence of a brown 
substance containing fatty matter, oxide of iron and carbon. 
From this it was supposed that a certain quantity of water 
had been forced into the cavity in service, either through the 
iron or through the imperfection in the plugs with which the 
original core support cavities were filled. This water, in 
forming oxide of iron, set free its hydrogen, which filled the 
piston cavity, and, as the recombinations of this hydrogen 
with the oxygen at a low red heat would have the effect of 
producing such an explosion, the suggestion is made that this 
result may be prevented if all such pistons be tapped before 
re-heating. 

EVAPORATION OF LOCOMOTIVE BOILER. 

The evaporation of a modern railway locomotive boiler 
averages about 7 lbs. per pound of coal. 



63 
THE THEORY OF THE STEAM ENGINE. 

For many years engineers cared nothing about the 
theory of the steam engine. They went on improving 
and developing it without any assistance from men of pure 
science. Indeed it may be said with truth that the gi'eatest 
improvement ever effected, the introduction of the com- 
pound engine, was made in spite of the physicist, who always 
asserted that nothing in the way of economy of fuel was to 
be gained by having two cylinders instead of one. In like 
manner, the mathematical theorist was content to make cer- 
tain thermo-dynamic assumptions, and, reasoning from them, 
to construct a theory of the steam engine, without troubling 
his head to consider whether his theory was or was not con- 
sistent with practice. Within the last few years, however, 
the theorist and the engineer have come a good deal into 
contact, and the former begins at last to see that the theory 
of the steam engine is laid down by Rankine,Xlausius, and 
other writers, must be deeply modified, if not entirely re- 
written, before it can be made to apply in practice. We 
have recently shown what M. Hirn, who combines in himself 
practical and theoretical knowledge in an unusual degree, 
has had to say concerning the received* theory of the steam 
engine, and its utter inutility for practical purposes ; and 
papers recently read before the Institutions of Mechanical 
and Civil Engineers, and the discussions which followed 
them, have done something to convince mathematicians that 
they have a good deal to learn yet about the laws w^hich 
determine the efficiency of a steam engine. It has always 
been the custom to class the steam engine with other heat 
engines. It is now known that nothing can be more errone- 
ous. The steam engine is a heat engine sui generis, and to 
confound it with a hot-air engine, or any motor w^orking 
with a non-condensible fluid, is a grave mistake. It is not 
too much to say that many engineers now understand the 
mathematical theory of the steam engine better than do 
men making thermo-dynamics a special study. But there 
remains a large number of engineers who do not as yet quite 
see their way out of certain things which puzzle them, or 
which they fail to understand. There are, indeed, phe- 
nomena attending tne use of steam which are not yet quite 
comprehended by any one, and we may be excused if we say 
something about one or two points which require elucidation. 

One of these is the mode of operation of the >team 
jacket. It is a very crude statement that it does good be- 
cause it keeps the cylinder hot. It might keep the cylinder 



64 

hot, and yet be a source of loss rather than gain ; and, as a 
matter of fact, it is doubtful now if the application of steam 
jackets to all the cylinders of a compound engine is advisa- 
ble. It is well known, too, that circumstances may arise, 
under which the jacket is powerless for good. Thus, for 
example, the late Mr. Alfred Barrett, when manager of the 
Reading Iron Works, carried out a very interesting series of 
experiments with a horizontal engine, in order to test the 
value of the jacket. This engine had a single cylinder fitted 
with a very thin wrought-iron liner, between which and the 
cylinder was a jacket space. The jacket was very carefully 
drained, and could be used either with steam or air in it. 
Experiments were made on the brake with and without 
steam in the jacket. The result was a practically infinitesi- 
mal gain by using steam in the jacket. In one word, the 
loss by condensation was transferred from the cylinder to 
the jacket. On the other hand, it is well known that single 
cylinder condensing engines must be steam jacketed if they 
are to be fairly economical. Circumstances alter cases, and 
the circumstances which attend the use of the jackets ar2 
more complex than appears at first sight. 

In considering the nature of the work to be done, we 
must repeat a fundamental truth which we have been the first 
to enunciate. A steam engine can discharge no water from 
it which it did not receive as water, save the small quantity 
which results from loss by external radiation and conduction 
from the cylinder, and from the performance of work. At 
first sight, the proposition looks as though it were untrue. 
Its accuracy will, however, become clear when it is carefully 
considered. After the engine has been fully warmed up, the 
cycle of events is this: Steam is admitted to the cylinder from 
the boiler. A portion of this is condensed. It parts with 
its heat to the metal with which it is in contact. The piston 
makes its stroke, and the pressure falls. The water mixed 
with the steam is then too hot for the pressure. It boils and 
produces steam, raising the toe of the diagram in a way well 
understood and needing no explanation here. During the 
return stroke the pressure falls to its lowest point, and the 
water, being again too hot for the pressure, boils, and is con- 
verted into steam, which escapes to the atmosphere or con- 
denser without doing work, and is wasted. The metal of the 
cylinder, etc., falls to the same temperature as the water. 
At the next stroke the entering steam finds cool metal to 
come into contact with, and is condensed, as we have said, 
and so on. But the quantity condensed during the steam 
gtroke is precisely equal to that evaporated during the 



65 

exhaust stroke, and consequently no condensed steam caa 
leave the engine as water. 

Let us suppose, for the sake of argument, however, that 
an engine using 20 lbs. of 100 lbs steam per horse per hour, 
discharges two pounds of water per horse per hour. As 
each of these brought, in round numbers, 1185 thermal units 
into the engine, and takes away only 212 units, it is clear 
that each pound must leave behind it 973 units ; conse- 
quently the cylinder will be hotter at the end of each revolu- 
tion than it was at the beginning, and the process would 
go on until condensation must entirely cease. It will be 
urged, however, that a steam jacket certainly does discharge 
water, and that in considerable quantity, which it did not re- 
ceive ; and, as this is apparently indisputable, we are here face 
to face with one of the puzzles to which we have referred. 
The fact, however, is in no wise inconsistent with what is ad- 
vanced. If an engine with an unjacketed cylinder^ regularly 
receives water from the boiler, that engine will discharge 
precisely an equal weight of water. The liquid will pass 
away in suspension in the exhaust steam. The engine has 
no power whatever of converting it into steam. The case 
of a jacketed engine is different. Such an engine will evap- 
orate in the cylinder water received with the steam, but it 
can only do so at the expense of the steam contained in the 
jacket. For every i lb. of water boiled away in the cylinder 
I lb. of steam is condensed in the jacket ; and the corollary 
is that, if an engine were supplied with perfectly dry steam, 
there would be no steam condensed in the jacket, save that 
required to meet the loss due to radiation and the conver- 
sion of heat into work. The effect of the jacket will be to 
boil a portion of the water during the close of the stroke, 
and so to keep up the toe of the diagram, and so get more 
work out of the steam. If, however, the steam was deliv- 
ered wet to the engine, it is very doubtful if the jacket could 
be productive of much economy. The water would be con- 
verted into steam during the exhaust stroke, and no equiva- 
lent would be obtained for the steam lost in the jacket. 

In a good condensing engine about 3 lbs. of steam per 
horse per hour are condensed in the jacket. The cylinder 
will use, say, 15 lbs. of steam, so the total consumption is 
18 lbs, per horse per hour. It is none the less a fact, al- 
though it is not generally known, that the average Lancashire 
boiler sends about 8 per cent, of water in the forn/- of in- 
sensible priming with the steam. Now, 8 per cent, of 18 
lbs. is 1.44 lbs., so that in this way we have nearly one-half 
the jacket condensation accounted for as just explained. 



66 

One horse-power represents 2,562 thermal units expended 
per hour, or, say, 2.6 lbs. of steam of 100 lbs. pressure con- 
densed to less than atmospheric pressure; and 1.44 — 
260=- 4.04 lbs. per horse per hour, as the necessary jacket 
condensation, if no water is to be found in the working 
cylinder at the end of each stroke. That this quantity is not 
condensed only proves that the water received from the 
boiler, or resulting from the performance of work, is not all 
re-evaporated. 

Something still remains to be written about the true 
action of the steam jacket, but this we must reserve for the 
present. We have said enough, we think, to show that, as 
we have stated, the jacket has more to do than keep the 
cylinder hot. With jacketed engines, more than any other, 
it is essential that the steam should be dry. In the case of 
an. unjacketed engine, water supplied from the boiler will 
pass through the engine as water, and do little harm; but, if 
the engine is jacketed, then the whole or part of this water 
will be converted into steam, especially during the period of 
exhaust, when it [can do more good than if it were boiled 
away in a pot in the engine-room. This is the principal 
reason why such conflicting opinions are expressed concern- 
ing the value of jackets. That depends principally on the 
merits of the boiler. 

TREATMENT OF NEW BOILERS. 

No new boiler should have pressure put upon it at once. 
Instead, it should be heated up slowly for the first day, and 
w^hether steam is wanted or not. Long before all the joints 
are made, or the engine ready for steam, the boiler should 
be set and in working order. A slight fire should be 
made and the water warmed up to about blood heat only, 
and left to stand in that condition and cool off, and absolute 
pressure should proceed by very slow stages. Persons who 
set a boiler and then build a roaring fire under it, and get 
steam as soon as they can, need not be surprised to find a 
great many leaks developed; even if the boiler does not actu- 
ally and visibly leak, an enormous strain is needlessly put 
upon it which cannot fail to injure it. Of all the forces en- 
gineers deal with, there are none more tremendous than ex- 
pansion and contraction. 



^1 

THE FIRST LOCOMOTIVE IN OHIL. 

In 1835, Roger, Ketchum & Grosvenor, of Paterson, 
N. J. , erected some buildings with a view to manufacturing 
locomotives, and in eighteen months thereafter the first 
locomotive, the " Sandusky," was completed. On the i6th 
of October, 1837, a trial trip was made between Paterson 
and New Brunswick, Timothy Smith acting as engineer. 
The performance of the engine was entirely satisfactory. 
The locomotive was built for the New Jersey Railroad, the 
gauge of the railroad being four feet ten inches. The 
engine was bought by J. H. James, of Urbana, president of 
the Mad River & Lake Erie Railroad, and, on the 14th of 
October, it was shipped to Sandusky via Erie Canal to 
Buffalo, and, from that port, it was shipped on the schooner 
Sandusky, in charge of Alexander Borden, of Rockey Ridge. 
The engine landed in Sandusky on the 30th of November, 
1837, and, on the 2d day of December, was unloaded. The 
father of John Homegardner furnished an ox team and sled, 
and the locomotive was taken to Knight's blacksmith shop. 
Here Mr. Knight completed the blacksmith work on the 
engine. The night of the 2d was the occasion of a big jam- 
boree over the arrival of the first engine in Ohio, and every- 
body had a high old time. 

The engine was in charge of Thomas Hogg, who had 
\rorked on it from its commencement. At this time not a 
foot of the Mad River Railroad track had been laid. The 
road was built to suit the gauge of the engine, and the Leg- 
islature of Ohio passed an act requiring all roads in the State 
to be four feet ten inches gauge, same as the engine " San- 
dusky. " 

The engine was used in the construction of the road until 
the nth of April, 1838, when regular trips for the convey- 
ance of passengers commenced between Sandusky and 
Bellevue. 

The engineer, Thomas Hogg, ran the " Sandusky" three 
years, keeping it in repair. Mr. Hogg subsequently became 
master mechanic of the Mad River Railroad, and continued 
in that capacity for about thirty years. He died in Danbury 
township a few years ago. 

The " Sandusky " had eleven-inch diameter cylinders by 
sixteen inches stroke; one pair of driving wheels of four feet 
six inches diameter, situated forward of the furnace; the 
trucks had four thirty-inch wheels, the eccentric rods extend- 
ing back to the rock-shafts, which were situated under the 
foot-board; the smoke-pipe was of the bonnet kind, having 



68 

a deflecting cone curled over the edges in the center, so as to 
deflect the sparks downward, and thus prevent their passing 
through the wire bonnet, as well as preventing the bonnet's 
wearing out too fast. 

SPEED OF RAILWAY TRAINS. 
What is the fastest railway time ever made ? is a question 
much easier asked than answered, and the answer, if it could 
be [definitely given, aids but little in arriving at the speed 
practically attainable in regular railway business. Extremely 
high rates of speed, perhaps equaling, if not surpassing, any 
that have been attained since, were achieved in the very ear- 
liest days of railroading. In 1841, Mr. I. K. Brunei, the 
constructing engineer of the Great Western Railway of 
England, and who afterward built the Great Eastern, adver- 
tised to run from Bristol to London in two hours, which was 
at the rate of sixty miles an hour, and Mr. R. Dymond, 
F. S. A., has stated, in Notes and Queries, that in 1846, he 
traveled with Brunei over the South Devonshire Railroad at 
a speed of seventy miles an hour. The first specially fast 
express train ever run, was in 1846, on the Great Western 
road, under the management of Brunei, and was known as 
the " Flying Dutchman," which name it has since retained. 
It made the distance of 193 miles from London to Exeter, in 
four and a half hours, with five stops, the full running speed of 
the train between stations being at the rate of 63.9 miles per 
hour. The schedule time of the same train, forty years later, . 
is sixteen minutes short of the time then made, but less time 
is deducted for stops, and the full running speed is only 55. i 
miles per hour. The best time ever reported for this train 
was May 11, 1848, in a run from London to Didcot, 53 miles 
in 47 minutes, when it is said that a speed of 76 miles per 
hour was attained for a portion of the- distance, the weight 
of the engine and train being 240,000 pounds, while the 
weight of the engine and train as now regularly run, with 
eight cars, is 525,000 pounds. A recently published state- 
ment gives the schedule time of a regular train of the Great 
Northern Railway, of England, for 105^ miles, at 53.6 
miles per hour; and for the " Flying Scotchman," a regular 
train on the East Coast route, from London to Edinburgh, 
392^ miles, the speed is 48 miles per hour, there being five 
stops and the total time being 8 h. 55 m. The fastest regu- 
lar train on the continent of Europe is said to be that be- 
tweei? ^Bordeaux and Paris, on the Orleans road, the dis- 
tance of 359 miles being made in 9 h. 6 m. , with ten stops, 
and the full running speed being 43^ miles per hour. 



69 

l:*robabl3j|one of tlie fastest trains ever run in tnis country 
was a specialon the West Shore line, from Buffalo to Jersey 
City, on July 9, 1885, making a distance of 422 j^ miles in 
9 h. 23 m. On a section of 61 miles of this distance, made 
in 56 minutes, the speed is reported to have reached a rate of 
71.6 miles per hour. The weight of the engine and train was 
311,000 pounds. On the New York Central, the Sunday 
train has been run 440 miles from New York to Buffalo at a 
speed of 45 X niiles per hour, making the total distance in 9 
h. 3o;m., and running from Syracuse to Rochester, 81 miles, 
in 85 minutes, or at a rate of 57 miles per hour, and numer- 
ous examples can be- quoted of speeds about equaling this, it 
being nothing extraordinary for regular trains to attain a 
speed of 60 1 miles an hour and slightly over for short dis- 
tances. One of the best authenticated tests of locomotive 
performance was a trial in 1885, over the Bcfund Brook 
route from Jersey City, where the weight of the engine and 
train was 370,000 pounds, and the trial w^as made in regidar 
service. The tests w^ere made by engineers w^ho published 
full reports, which were also published in leading English 
papers, showing consumption of fuel and all details, the 
engine being built at the Baldwin Locomotive Works, and 
having coupled drivers only 68 inches in diameter. In this 
test it was shown that the slip of the driving wheels was 
practically nothing, and the indicator cards gave a speed as 
high as a mile in 46' seconds, or equal to 78.26 miles per hour. 

The attainment of such exceptionally high speeds, how- 
ever, for very short distances, has but little of practical 
value ; such apparent feats in railroading are really quite old, 
and are not to be compared in importance or in difficulty 
with what is now being accomplished every day by the 
" limited '* trains between New York and Chicago. The 
distance by the Pennsylvania road is 912 miles, and by the 
Nev/ York Central it 15977 miles, and the time in each case 
isonly twenty-three hours, with heavy trains, making several 
stoppages. Considering distance, time and quality of work, 
*hese trains are undoubtedly entitled to precedence in any 
proper comparison with the best fast trains operated by 
railroads anywhere else in the world. 



Piston rods on marine steam engines are in many cases 
larger than a ten year-old child's body. They look as 
though not^jing could break them, but they break very often, 
in spite of their looks. 



70 
SMOKE — HOW FORMED. 

When fresh coal is placed on a fire in an open grate, 
smoke arises immediately; and the cause of this smoke is not 
far to seek, as it will be easily understood that, before fresh 
coals were put upon the fire within the grate, the glowing 
coals radiated their heat and warmed the air above, and 
thereby enabled the rising gases to at once combine with the 
warmed air to produce combustion; but, when the fresh coals 
are placed upon the fire, they absorb the heat, and the air 
above remains cold. 

By gases, is meant the gases arising from coals while on 
or near the fire, and it may not be known to every one that 
we do not burn coals, oils, tallow or wood, but only the 
gases arising from them. This can be made clear by the 
lighting of a candle, which will aiford the information 
required. By lighting the candle, fire is set to the wick, 
which, by its warmth, melts a small quantity of tallow 
directly absorbed by the capillary tubes of the wickj and 
thereby so very finely and thinly distributed that the burning 
wick has heat enough to be absorbed by the small quantity 
of dissolved tallow to form the same into gases, and these 
gases burning, combined with the oxygen in the atmosphere, 
give the light of the candle. A similar process is going on 
in all other materials; but coal contains already about sev- 
enteen per cent, of gases, which liberate themselves as soon 
as they get a little warm. The smaller the coal, the more 
rapidly will the gases be liberated, so that, in many cases, 
only part of the gasea are consumed. 

The fact is, that the volatile gases from the coal cannot 
combine with cold air for combustion. Still combustion 
takes place in the following ways. The cold air, in the act 
of combination, absorbs a part of the warmth of the rising 
gases, which they cannot spare, and, therefore, must con- 
dense, so that small particles are formed, which aggregate 
and are called smoke, and when collected, produce soot ; but 
as long as these particles and gases are floating, they cannot 
burn or produce combustion, as they are surrounded by a 
thin film of carbolic acid. It is only when collected and this 
acid driven off, that they are consumed. 

It has now been shown that cold is the cause of smoke, 
which may be greatly reduced by care. In the open fire , j 
grate the existing fire ought to be drawn to the front of the ^ 
grate, and the fresh coal placed behind, or in the back of the 
fire. The fire in the front will then burn more rapidly, 
warm the air above, and prepare the raising gases for com- j 



71 

bustion. In this way smoke is diminished, as the gases 
from the coals at the back rise much more slowly then when 
placed upon the fire and the air partly warmed. 



WHAT IS LATENT HEAT? 

Heat has its equivalent in mechanical work, and, when 
heat disappears, work of some kind will take its place. 
When a body changes from the liquid to the gaseous form, 
the molecules have to be separated and placed in different 
positions with regard to each other. This calls for an ex- 
penditure of work. This work is supplied by heat, which 
disappears at the time. One can hold his hand in steam es- 
caping from a safety valve of a boiler for this reason. The 
heat of the steam disappears in pushing apart and rearrang- 
ing the molecules of the steam as it expands when it leaves 
the safety valve. 

The term latent heat, as commonly used, means the 
amount of heat which disappears when water changes from a 
liquid into steam. This is considerable, as will be seen by 
consulting any table of the heat contained in steam, and the 
water from which it comes. 

Water at 212^ contains 180 units of heat. Steam at 
212^ contains 1,146 units of heat. The latent heat is the 
difference of 966 units. Such a large quantity disappears 
when liquid water changes to steam, that boiling cannot be 
raised above 212°, no matter how hard it is boiled. The 
heat becomes latent, and the mechanical work, or rather 
molecular work, is sufficient to take up all that is supplied by 
the fire. 

The specific heat of air at constant pressure being 
0.2377, the specific heat of water, which is i, is, therefore, 
4.1733 times greater under ordinary circumstances. A 
pound of water losing 1° of heat, or one thermal unit, will 
consequently raise the temperature of 4.17 pounds, or, at 
ordinary temperatures, say 50' of air, 1°. A pound of steam 
at atmospheric pressure, having a temperature of 212^ F., 
in condensing to water at 212^ F., yields 966 thermal units, 
which, if utilized, would raise the temperature of 5X966— 
4830' of air i^, or about 690' from 5° to 70^ F. 



72 



•^1 



INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT AMERICAN 
LOCOMOTIVES. 

Recently an extended trial was had of a modern locomo- 
tive on the New Jersey Central R. R., by two graduates of 
Stevens' Institute, Messrs. H. S. Wynkoop and John Wolff, 
and the results of it, as shown in the report, for which we 
are indebted to W. P. Hofecker, M. M. of the New Jersey 
Central R. R., are a valuable contribution to current en- 
gineering data. 

The locomotive is of the modern four-driver and truck 
type, with extended smoke-box; the cylinders are i8'' x 24"; 
drivers, over all, 6S"; weight on same, 68,670 lbs.; total 
weight of engine and tender, 152,660 lbs. The exhaust 
nozzles were 3;^ths in diameter, and the average boiler 
pressure, 127.40 lbs. Under these circumstances the average 
evaporation was 7. 11 lbs. from and at 212^. The highest 
power shown was 1,000 i. h. p., but the average was about 
750 i. h. p. The water consumption is stated to have been 
as low as 14.63, and the highest 23 lbs. per h. p. per hour. 
This seems little short of incredible. The power developed 
from one square foot of heating surface was 7.51, and the 
amount of coal per horse-power, per hour, was 40 pounds. 
It is much easier to weigh the coal exactly and estimate it, 
than it is the water in the tender and boiler, for more or 
less waste would seem, to be inevitable in the water, through 
leakages, etc., but, taking the coal consumption as stated, 
and the power developed as 750 h. p. , the anomaly in the 
amount of water per h. p. is apparent. Fourteen pounds of 
water per h. p. per hour, is a result seldom, if ever, reached 
in high powered, high expansion engines, and it is seldom, if 
ever, reached in the average automatic engine of equivalent 
expansions. This makes the performance of this locomotive 
so unusual that we chronicle the fact. The weight of the 
train was 324,090 lbs., or 162 tons of 2,000 lbs. each. 

The gradients were favorable. The line rises 120 ft. from 
Jersey City to Westfield, and then falls 95 ft. to Bound Brook, 
the gradients never exceeding 24 ft. per mile. The line then 
rises almost continuously until it attains a height of 498 ft. 
above Jersey City, the steepest grade being 41 ft. per mile . 
The line then falls 287 ft. to Phillipsburg, the steepest grade 
being 21 feet per mile. The average gradient is about id ft. 
per mile. 

The highest speed attained was 78.8 miles per hour, of 
course on the grade. From Phillipsburg to Jersey City the 
distance is 73 miles, and it is run in 2 hours 27 minutes. 



73 

making 21 stops, but any attempt to figure the average speed 
is nullified by the fact that the time lost in stopping and get- 
ting up to speed again is unknown. 

It is also interesting to note that the coal consumed per 
square foot of the grate surface was very much smaller than 
is generally supposed to be the average on locomotives. The 
guantity we allude to was only 20 lbs. per square foot of grate 
surface, and has been burned in ocean steamers thirty years 
ago with natural draught. Locomotives generally are sup- 
posed to burn from 40 to 60 lbs. of coal per square foot of 
';rate surface, and the performance of this engine with 20 lbs. 
per square foot only, is extraordinary. 

NINE THOUSAND LOCOMOTIVES. 

The Baldwin Locomotive Works have recently completed 
their 9,000th engine. Such an enormous output Jrom works 
is highly creditable to any firm, and is especially remarkable 
tvhen it is borne in niind that the works were not originally 
laid out for building modern locomotives, and that they 
labor under some consequent disadvantages, the individual 
i;hops being separated by public streets, and many of them 
being a considerable distance from the main office. However, 
a good system of organization and a careful selection of offi- 
cers and foremen will effect wonders even in the face of phys- 
ical disadvantages, and this is probably the secret of the suc- 
cess of the Baldwin Locomotive Works, which from small 
beginnings have built up by far the largest business of the 
kind in the world. The principle of taking the tried and ex- 
perienced chiefs of departments into partnership has worked 
well, and has doubtless contributed greatly to the success of the 
firm. A manufacturing business, especially when dealing with 
such complicated pieces of machinery as locomotives, requires 
great mechanical ability and experience in those at the helm, 
and this cannot be secured as long as the brains that actuate 
the whole concern are merely paid a salary, while those who 
reap the profits have only a pecuniary interest in their work, 
and cannot understand its technical aspects. This is doubt- 
less one reason why stock companies so often fail in manufac- 
turing enterprises, while private firms, built up ^gradually by 
practical men, succeed in spite of limited capital. The mem- 
bers of the successful private firm understand the work pro- 
iluced, and can fully enter into and conceive the improve- 
ments by which good workmanship can be produced at a 
constantly decreasing price, and so meet competition and 
please their custoxvxers. 



74 
LOCOMOTIVES OF THE FUTURk. 

Thirty years ago fifty and sixty miles per hour was not 
gui uncommon maximum speed. Now sixty and seventy is 
about as high as we get on any of our lines. The weight of 
trains has probably grown as much as that of locomotives, 
and, perhaps, will continue to increase. Supposing, then, 
that the problem was presented to-day of making a passenger 
locomotive of double the weight and capacity of the largest 
now in use. That would mean an engine of somewhat over 
2CX>,ooo pounds in weight, with a grate surface of fifty-five 
to sixty square feet, and a boiler with 3,000 square feet of 
heating surface, and cylinders twenty-seven or twenty-eight 
inches in diameter. Boilers five feet in diameter are now 
not uncommon ; seven and a half feet in diameter would give 
about twice the sectional area. An eight -wheeled American 
engine, weighing 100,000 pounds, would have about 17,000 
pounds on each wheel. Double this weight, or 34,000 
pounds per wheel, would be enormous, and would require 
a very great increase in the weight of rails ; and, even then, 
would be very doubtful if it could be carried without crushing 
both the tires and rails. By distributing this load on six or 
eight wheels, the load per wheel would be 22,666, or 17,000 
l^unds, which is well within possible limits. 

The experience of the last few years has shown that the 
height of the center of gravity is not a matter of so great 
importance as was formerly supposed. The first impression 
is that a high locomotive is as likely to upset as a high load 
of hay, and it takes a considerable time and some deductive 
reasoning to realize fully that the vertical inequalities and 
horizontal deviations from a straight line, which a load of 
hay is expected to traverse, bear somewhat the same rela- 
tion to those of a railroad that high mountains do to the 
gentle undulations of prairie country, and, therefore, that an 
elevation of the center of gravity which would be disastrous 
to a load of hay may be quite safe for a locomotive on a rail- 
road. Mr. Wootten had the courage of his convictions, and 
elevated the centers of the boilers of his locomotives 7 ft. 8 
in. above the tops of the rails. 

The experience with electric light engines during the past 
few years has indicated what may be done with high-speed 
engines, and, in the light of that experience, it may be that 
Ivheels of smaller diameter than ^% ft. might be used, and 
the requisite speed be obtained by running the pistons at 
higher velocities than is the present practice with locomo- 
tives. This would permit the boilers to be lowered and the 



7!) 

size of cylinders to be reduced, and, consequently, tne re- 
ciprocating parts and wheels would all be smaller and 
lighter. The reduction in weight could then be put into the 
boiler, which is the source of all power. 

It, therefore, seems quite probable that the size and 
capacity of locomotives will continue to increase, although 
it is quite likely that there will be some modifications of the 
present forms of construction which will permit of the use 
of larger fire-boxes, and of lowering those parts whose ele- 
vation with a changed construction will not be essential. 

There are some sanguine people who also predict that 
the speed of locomotives will also be doubled in the shadowy 
future, into which none of us can see very far. Past expe- 
rience has not shown an increase in speed corresponding with 
that of the weight and capacity of locomotives. The rea- 
son is not difficult to find. The capacity of a locomotive — 
that is, the load it can pull at a given speed — i§_proportion- 
ate to its weight ; that is, an engine twice as heavy will pull 
a train double the weight. There is a physical law which 
unfortunately prevents the fulfillment of the predictions of 
the sanguine profits of speed — that is, that the resistance of 
trains increases as the square of the velocity — probably at 
even a higher ratio at high velocities ; and, what adds to the 
difficulty is, that, Vvhen the amount of work is thus increased, 
it must be done in less time. Thus at 60 miles an hour the 
resistance is roughly twice as great as it is at 40 miles, and 
the work must be done in two-thirds of the time. This law 
stands in the way of an increase in speed beyond limits which, 
are soon reached in practical service. 

RAPID RAILWAY TRANSIT. 

As an illustration of the speed at which railway traveling- 
can be effected when the necessity arises, it may be mentioned 
that last week an American, having missed the train in Lon- 
don, and having to catch an Atlantic steamer at Liverpool, 
proceeded by the ordinary train to Crewe, where a specia- 
engine had been chartered to convey him direct to Liverpool 
The distance between Crewe and Liverpool is thirty-six miles,, 
and one of the large Crew^* engines completed the journey 
in thirty-three minutes, the American reaching the landing 
stage at Liverpool ten minutes befure the timed departure ol 
his steamer. I'he c)6t for this special service was ;^i I. 



76 

RAILWAY GAUGES OF THE WORLL.. 



1 



Ireland has a standard gauge of 5 ft. 3 in. ; Spain and 
Portugal 5 ft. 6}i in. ; Sweden and Norway have the 4 ft 
8^ in. gauge over the majority of their railroads, but 20 
per cent of the Swedish roads have other gauges, varying 
from 2 feet 7 j^ in. up to 4 ft. 

In Asia, of tlie British-Indian roads, about 7,450 miles 
have a gauge of 5 ft. 5^ in., the remainder being divided 
among six gauges from 2 ft. to 4 ft. Of the narrow gauges, 
the most prevalent, embracing 4,200 miles, is the metre, 
3 ft. 3>^ in. _ 

In Japan, with the exception of an 8-mile piece begun in 
1885, with a gauge of 2 ft. 9 in., all the roads have a 3 ft. 
6 in. gauge. 

In Africa, the Egyptian railroads, amounting to 932 miles, 
are - of the 4 ft. 8^ in. gauge. Algiers and Tunis, with 
1,203 miles in 1884, had the 4 ft. S}4 i"- standard on 
all but 155 miles, which had a 3 ft. y){ in. gauge. The 
English Cape Colony had, in 1885, 1,522 miles, all of 3 ft. 
6 in. gauge. 

In America, practically the whole of the United States 
and Canadian railroads are of 4 ft. S}4 i^i- to 4 ft. 9 in. 
gauge. In Mexico, in 1884, 2,083 miles were 4 ft. Sj4 in., 
and 944 3 ft. gauge. In Brazil, at the end of 1884, there 
were 869 miles of 5 ft. 3 in. gauge, and 4, 164 miles of various 
gauges between 2 ft. and 7 in., over 3,700 miles being i 
metre, or 3 ft. 3^ in, or that this may be considered the 
standard gauge of Brazil. 

In Australia, the different colonies, rather singularly, 
have different gauges, that of New South Wales being 4 ft. 
S)4 in., Victoria 5 ft. 3 in.. South Australia 4 ft. 3 in. and 3 
ft. 6 in., and the other colonies 3 ft. 6 in. 

The total mileage in operation in the world at the end of 
. 1885 was 303,048 miles. Of this length, 74 per cent, were 
of the 4 ft. S^z in. to 4 ft. 9 in. standard, 12 per cent, had 
larger gauges, and 14 per cent, smaller. 



i. 



How many people, outside of practical men, know that 
steam is an invisible gas until the moisture it bears is con- 
densed by contact Avith cold air. Such is a fact, neverthe- 
less, as we may readily see by boiling water in a glass vessel. 
The bubbles that rise to the surface of the water are appar- 
*ently empty — the white vapor appears after theyb"**^*- ^»->the 
air at the surface of the water. 



11 

HOW IRON SHIPS ARE PROTECTED. 

Now, in dealing with cellular spaces of iron ships, it is 
all important that the iron or steel should receive a thick 
coating of the protective material before it commences to 
oxidize. In the case of steel the black oxide scale which 
covers the newly rolled material must in all cases be removed 
before paint or other substance is laid on. This is neces- 
sary both inside and outside of the vessel, and, if neglected, 
the results will sooner or later be expensive and annoying. 
But, when the scale is off and the surface cleaned, the paint, or 
whatever else is used, should be put on without any delay. 
For the interior of the vessel, exposed to bilge water or 
water ballast, paint is of very little use. Most ship-owners 
coat the surfaces at these parts with " cement wash, " a very 
fluid preparation of Portland cement laid on with a brush. 
The same coating has often been laid upon the upper surface 
of inner bottom plating, with fairly good results. Elsewhere 
within the vessel iron or steel work should be painted, the 
thoroughness of the painting and the number of coats applied 
being of greater importance than the nature of the paint 
itself, which may be red lead, iron oxide, or white zinc, just 
as suits the taste of the person paying for it. 

Although " cement wash " has proved a fairly satisfactory 
protection to iron or steel work at the parts already referred 
to, yet recent experience tends to show that more advantage- 
ous results follow the use of Stockholm tar and Portland 
cement. The surfaces coated must in all cases be free from 
oxidation, and quite dry. If at all damp the intended pro- 
tection rapidly falls off. The surfaces are first coated with 
Stockholm tar, and at once sprinkled with dry cement pow- 
der until as much cement is applied as will stick to the tar. 
The tar and cement speedily amalgamate and slowly set; but 
when set the protection is quite hard and wholly impermea- 
ble to water. The upper surfaces of inner bottoms may ad- 
vantageously be covered with this protection, more especially 
v/hen under engines and boilers. Indeed, the wear and tear 
to inner bottom plating below machinery and boilers has 
been found to be so great that in all probability the placing 
of double bottoms at that part of the vessel will, to a large 
extent, be avoided in the future. 

Unless some means can be taken to check the corrosive 
action which is so destructive at that part of the vessel, it 
will be necessary to add considerably to the scantlings, in 
order to provide a sufficient margin for possible and probable 
deterioration. The Stockholm tar and Portland cement 



78 

remedy appears so far to meet the necessities of the case, 
and it is to be hoped that further experience will confirm 
present expectations regarding it. 

Uncovered iron and steel decks continue to waste at a 
rapid rate, despite all the attempts hitherto made to check 
corrosive action. Coal tar and black varnish seem only to 
make matters worse, and the " let-alone " policy appears, so 
far, to be as good as any. Singularly enough, the more 
traffic there is on an iron deck, the less the wear and tear is 
found to be. At the sides of large hatchways, for instance, 
the corrosion is less than at parts of the deck where men 
seldom walk. It is not difficult to explain this phenomenon. 
As is well known, oxidation of iron progresses most rapidly 
in the presence of existing rust. The rust of copper prevents 
further corrosion, and only by the constant exfoliation on 
the -surface is the bottom of a copper-sheathed ship kept 
clean. If that exfoliation is checked, the substance of the 
copper is preserved from wasting, but at the cost of a foul 
bottom. With iron, the case is different. Oxidation 
engenders further oxidation, and hence the necessity for 
frequently scaling the surface of iron which is permitted to 
oxidize at all. The wear and tear of traffic near the hatch- 
ways wears away the scale of rust as it is formed, and conse- 
quently corrosion proceeds more slowly there than elsewhere 
on the iron deck. The constant falling of salt water on the 
deck is undoubtedly the cause of its rapid corrosion, and 
up to the present time no means appear to have been suc- 
cessful in keeping the water from acting on the surface of 
the iron. Probably the Stockholm tar and Portland cement 
remedy w^ould be as efficacious as any if it were hard enough 
to endure, but that is doubtful. Under present circum- 
stances, the best course seems to be to scale the deck fre- 
quently, and so imitate at all parts of the surface the action 
which nominally operates so advantageously at the sides of 
the hatchways. 



HOW BOILER PLATES ARE PROVED. 

This is done by placing a piece of Bessemer steel ten 
inches long in a testing machine. Gradually the surface 
scales off in the middle, to become smaller in area, and some- 
what elongated, till, at last, it breaks with a sharp snap at a 
breaking strain of about twenty-eight tons to the square inch, 
the reduction of area being fifty-one per cent., and the 
elongation twenty-three per cent. 



79 

WHY WATER PUTS OUT FIRE. 
I have often been puzzled to answer for myself why 
trater extinguishes fire. A great many people say it is be- 
cause the water and its steam so completely envelop the 
burning material as to exclude oxygen, and thus the fire 
must stop. This seems to be an inefficient, if not an entirely 
erroneous, reason. My reason is this : " We know that 
^othing will burn (/. e.^ unite with oxygen with the evolu- 
I'tion of heat and light) unless, and until, it has been raised 
to a given temperature. Thus ; Sodium burns at ordinary 
temperatures — about sixty degrees if dry — the gas of 
ordinary kerosene at about 170 degrees, or less, and so on. 
Why do we tie a piece of stick with sulphur and then with 
phosphorus to make matches ? Because, w^hile wood must 
nave a high temperature, phosphorus will burn~ at a com 
paratively low temperature — so low that the heat developed 
by strict friction will ignite it. The phosphorus makes heat 
enough to ignite the sulphur, but not enough to start the 
wood. Now, in the large amount of heat which water can 
take up, and the fact that ordinary inflammables must be 
raised to a high temperature in order to burn, we have the 
cause of water putting out a fire. Put a burning match into 
a very small drop of water and it is extinguished, because of 
the very large amount of heat taken from the match in redu- 
cing the water to steam, which renders the temperature of 
the match too far below 212 degrees, or, at least, so far, if 
there is water enough, that the carbon and its compounds, 
forming wood, will no longer unite with the oxygen of the 
air. For the same reason, a hot iron thrust mto the water 
is cooled, and water sprinkled on the floor cools the air, the 
heat of the evaporation in the latter case coming from the 
air itself, cooling it. If we could find a fluid very plentiful, 
which requires more heat than water to make it boil, evi- 
dently we could put large fires out much more rapidly. 

THE NUMBER OF GERMAN LOCOMOTIVES. 
According to Herr Leonhardt, a German engineer, the 
number of locomotives in use on German railroads was 
12,450 in the year 1885-86, the average age being 12.49 
5^ears. Fifty engines built previous to the year 1850 were 
still in use at the date refe-rred to, the oldest of which date<l 
from 1845. 



I 



So 



ECONOMY IN THE USE OF AN INJECTOR. 

The following is an interesting discussion of the economy 
due to the use of an injector, in comparison with a direct- 
acting steam-pump, both with and without a feed-water 
heater, and a geared pump with heater. Although the in- 
vestigation is theoretical, it seems to be based on reliable 
data, so that the results, as summarized in the following ' 
table, differ little, in all probability, from the figures which 
would be obtained by actual experiment : 





Temperature 


Relative amount 


Per cent, of 


Manner of feeding 


of feed- 


of coal required 


fuel saved 


boiler. 


water. 


for feed 


over first 




Fahrenheit. 


apparatus, in 
equal times. 


case. 


I. D ire c t- acting 








steam-pump, V 


600 


100 


0. 


no heater 








2. Injector, no heater 


1500 


98.5 


1-5 


3. Injector, wi th ^ 
heater 


2000 


93-8 


6.2 


4. Direct-acting 








steam-pump, V 


2000 


87.9 


12. 1 


with heater. . . ) 








5. Ge a red-pump, ^ 
actuated by 














the main en- } 


2000 


86.8 


13.8 


gi n e, w i th 1 








heater J 









This does not make the comparison between the eco- 
nomical performance of an injector and pump actuated by 
the main engine, without heater in each case, or, in other 
words, he does not consider one of the most general divisions 
of the problem. Some experiments made on the Illinois 
Central Railroad may be briefly cited to supplement the dis- 
cussion. The figures given represent averages of eight trips 
of 128 miles in each case : 



Feeding 


Feeding 


Per cent. 


with 


with 


of grain 


pump. 


injector. 

8,736 
46,826 


for injector 
9.08 
4.04 



Pounds of coal per trip . . . 

Pounds of water per trip. 

Pounds of water evapo- 
rated per pound of coal 5.14 5-26 4.28 
In the experiments with pump, the trains were slightly 

heavier than when the injector was used, and more time was 



8i 

lost in switching and standing, for which reason the experi- 
menters considered that the economy of coal consumption 
for the injector should be reduced from 9.08 to 6.21 per cent. 
Some incidental advantages were observed in the case of the 
injector, the boiler steamed more freely, and there was less 
variation of pressure. 

A LILLIPUTIAN LOCOMOTIVE. 

A very small locomotive has lately left the shops of 
Kraus & Co., of Munich. This engine, together with a car 
and one mile of portable track, is intended as a present 
from the King of Belgium to the Sultan of Morocco. This 
imperial toy will be laid in the gardens of the palace. The 
different pieces having necessarily to be ^carried from 
the port of landing to the capital by the primitive mode of 
freight transportation — the pack saddle — lightness of the 
single piece was the chief consideration with the builders, 
The gauge is 23! inch. The heaviest parts of the engine, 
the boiler and the lower frame, weigh about 660 pounds 
each. The power the engine can develop is 4 H. P., and the 
speed is nine miles per hour. It is a four-wheeled tender 
locomotive on the Kraus system, with water tank frame. To 
save weight without reducing the strength of the single parts, 
phosphor bronze and steel have been freely used in its con- 
struction. The cylinder, piston, cross-head and journals are 
of phosphor bronze. The firing to be done with wood, a 
relatively large grate surface (i~r4 of the total heating surface) 
has been given, and the engine has been provided with an 
American spark arrester. The dimensions are : 

Cylinder" 3}^ in. x 6^ iri- 

Drivers, diameter 15X in. 

Wheel base 27^ in. 

Heating surface 10.7 sq. ft. 

Grate area .75 sq. ft. 

Boiler pressure 180 lbs. 

Tank capacity 50 gallons. 

Weight, empty 2,420 lbs. 

Weight, in working order 3,080 lbs. 

This is probably one of the smallest locomotives evei 
made, though many engines are working regularly on a nar* 
rower gauge, 18-inch, in shops, steel works, brick yards, etc 



82 

RULE FOR SAFETY VALVE WEIGHTS. 

There seems to be a steady demand for this rule. The 
following is an easily remembered formula which may be of 
service to some : 

D2 X .7854 X P— D W + F 

. =W. 

Now, this looks somewhat formidable to those who are 
not familiar with calculations in any form, but a few words 
and a little study will make it clear to most persons. The 
explanation is this : 

D^ means that the diameter of the valve is to be multi- 
plied by the same figure. If the valve is /\." diameter multi- 
ply it by 4. If it is 2" multiply it by 2 ; if 3^" multiply it 
by 3^. This is called squaring the diameter. Now multi- 
ply the sum by .7854 and observe the decimal. This gives 
the area, as it is called, or number of square inches in the 
valve exposed to pressure. Of course, the end of the valve 
exposed to steam has been measured — not the top of it. 
Now multiply the sum last found by the pressure to be car- 
ried on the boiler, say 60, if it is 60 pounds. This gives the 
force pressing on the bottom of the valve to blow it off its 
seat. Take half the weight of the lever and whole weight 
of valve and stem from this last sum, and then multiply by 
the distance from the center of the valve-stem to the center 
of the hole in the short end of the lever. Divide the sum so 
found by the whole length of the lever. Then you have the 
weight of the ball to go on the end to give 60 lbs. per square 
inch on the boiler. 

This is, in brief, the rule ; but it is of no earthly use to those 
who are not familiar with ordinary arithmetic, for they will 
be very likely to make serious errors in the result by mis- 
takes in figuring. 

The steamboat inspection law demands that candidates 
for marine licenses shall know this rule; but in many cases it 
would be iust as useful to demand that a man should be able 
to jump twenty-five feet from a standstill, for those who are 
incompetent can learn the rule as above given, and pass mus- 
ter, without being practical working engineers, while those 
who have mathematical abilities and practical experience 
also, are only affronted by such appeals to the knowledge 
they have of their calling. 

The qualifications and abilities of engineers for their 
positions are in nowise determined by such trifling exercise? 
as these. 



83 

REMARKABLE TIRE RECORD. 

The Cumberland Valley Railroad received, on April 15, 
1881, a locomotive built at the Rogers Locomotive and 
Machine Works, Paterson, N. J., and, on April 20, 1882, 
received another engine from the same works. These en- 
gines were numbered 32 and 35, respectively, and 
have done duty on passenger runs, making the round 
trip from Harrisburg to Martinsburg and return, a 
distance of 94 miles, or 188 miles daily. Engine 32 was 
brought in the shop to have her tire turned off, after making 
a run of 169,140 miles. She then made a run of 96,070 
miles, and was brought into the shop for other repairs, 
when her tires were again turned. After this she was again 
brought in the shop for general overhauling, and has had 
her tires turned off after a run of 89,487 miles. 

No. 35, however, has a remarkable record, her tires 
never having been turned off since coming on Ae road until 
this spring, when, having met with an accident, she had to 
be brought into the shop, and, in the meantime, had her 
tires turned off. The turning showed the tires to be less 
than one-sixteenth out of round in the most worn part. 
The mileage made by these tires was 328,969 miles. The 
following table shows the number of miles made each 
year : 

1882 33,954 miles. 

1883 57,594 " 

1884 57,058 " 

1885 57,930 " 

1886 54,789 " 

1887 55,654 " 

1888 11,990 " 

328,969 " 
These engines have 63-inch drivers, 16" — 22'^ cylinders, 
and with a concentrated weight on drivers of 46,550 pounds. 
The maximum grade they encounter going west is 45 feet 
per mile, and going east 40 feet per mile. The sharpest 
curvture is five degrees, but the general curvature does not 
exceed three degree curve. The average rate of speed on 
the road, of these engines, is 45 miles per hour. 

These tires were made by the Midvale Steel Company, 
and, apart from the excellent quality of the tires, due credit 
must be given to the Rogers Locomotive and Machine 
Works, for the excellent manner in which these engines 
were put together and counterbalanced. It is also gratifying 



84 

to note the evident care bestowed on the engines in questio'iO 
by those who had them in charge. The condition of the 
roadbed, of course, had much to do with the satisfactory i 
working of the engines, and reflects credit on the chief] 
engineer of the road. 

SPEED OF TRAINS. 







Time 1 




Time 




Time 


nd-S 


required to | 


-nJ-"^ 


required to 


i^ 


required ^0 






go. 1 




g 


0. 


1^ 


go. 


C/2 Q. 


/z m 


I m 


>^ m 


I m 


Km 


I m 


ml. 


IT 


L. S 


m. s 


ml. 


m. s. 


m. s 


ml. 


m. s 


m. s 


5 


6 


o 


12 


24 


I 15 


2 30 


43 


41 


I 23 


6 


5 


o 


10 


25 


I 12 


2 24 


44 


40 


I 21 


7 


4 


17 


8 34 


26 


I 9 


2 18 


45 


40 


I 20 


8. 


3 


45 


7 30 


27 


I 6 


2 13 


46 


39 


I 18 


9 


3 


20 


40 


28 


I 4 


2 8 


47 


38 


I 16 


lO 


3 


O 


6 


29 


I 2 


2 4 


48 


37 


I 15 


II 


2 


43 


5 27 


30 


I 


2 


49 


36 


I 13 


12 


2 


30 


5 


31 


° 5f 


I 56 


50 


36 


I 12 


13 


2 


18 


4 37 


32 


56 


I 52 


51 


35 


I 10 


H 


2 


8 


4 17 


33 


54 


I 49 


52 


34 


I 9 


^5 


2 





4 


34 


53 


I 46 


53 


34 


I 7 


i6 




52 


3 45 


35 


51 


I 43 


54 


33 


I 6 


17 




46 


3 31 


36 


50 


I 40 


55 


32 


I 5 


i8 




40 


3 20 


^'' 


48 


I 37 


56 


32 


I 4 


19 




34 


3 9 


3^ 


47 


I 34 


57 


31 


I 3 


20 




30 


3 


39 


46 


I 32 


58 


31 


I 2 


21 




25 


2 51 


40 


45 


I 30 


59 


30 


I I 


22 




21 


2 43 


41 


43 


I 27 


60 


30 


I 


23 




18 


2 36 


42 


42 


I 25 









HOW TO MAKE CONICAL SPIRAL SPRINGS. 

Wind the springs in usual manner on a straight mandrel 
and close the ends back, the distance required for the cone, by 
bending the coils in the jaws of a vise. Commence with the 
end coil, and squeeze first on one side and then on the other, 
until it is somewhat reduced in size; then take the next coil, 
and so on as far as you want to go. Be careful to squeeze 
the coils in such a manner as to retain their circular form. 
It is best, in order to get good results, to go over the cone a 
number of times, instead of reducing each coil to the required 
size as you go along. 



85 
SPEED OF TRAINS IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 
The following comparison of the speed of fast trains in 
different countries is made by taking a journey of about 200 
miles from the principal cities of the countries named 
below; 















Speed 


Country. 


Journey. 


Dis- 


Time. 


No. of 


inc'di'g 






tance. 






Stops. 


Stops. 


u, s. 


New York — 














Boston .... 


234 


6 





6 


39* 


(( 


New York — 














Washington 


226 


5 


18 


3 


42 7 


England 


London 














Manchester. . 


203X 


4 


IS 


2 


48* 


France 


Paris — Dijon 


196 


5 


33 


_ 2 


36 


Germany. . . . 


Berlin — Min- 














den 


199 


S 


35 


7 


36 


Austria. . /. . 


Vienna — Pil- 














sen 


217 


6 


45 


II 


33 


Italy 


Rome — Pisa 


208 


7 





8 


29.5 


Spain . . 


Madrid — 














Saragossa. . 


211 


Q 


2b 


9 


22 


Portugal . . . 


Lisbon — 














Oporto. 


209 


II 





18 


18.5* 



Trains marked * carry passengers at the ordinary rate of 
fare. The time and distance for the Pennsylvania train run- 
ning to Washington is given from Jersey City. It will be 
seen that the fastest trains in this country exceed in speed 
those of any other country, England alone excepted. The 
average speed of the six Continental expresses referred to is 
only a trifle above 29 miles an hour, while the average speed 
of trains carrying passengers at the ordinary rate of fare for 
the same journeys is about 26 miles an hour, and the aver- 
age number of stops is 8 for express trains, and 12 for those 
carrying passengers at ordinary rates. 



HOW TO PREVENT INCRUSTATION IN STEAM 
BOILERS. 

To prevent incrustation in steam boilers, triphosphate of 
soda, mixed with the feed water and allowed to stand for 
several hours, is being used with success. 



86 
COAL PER MILE RUN. 
Of all the barren subjects it is possible to bring into a 
controversy on locomotive construction, none is more barren 
than the consumption of coal per mile. As a rule, outsiders 
know accurately little or nothing at all about it. Further- 
more, the locomotive superintendent himself can form little 
more than a good estimate. It is very easy to ascertain how 
much coal a locomotive burns in running a certain distance, 
with a given train, but this means nothing in a railway 
sense. We have met with instances in which the consump- 
tion on a trip was under i8 pounds per mile ; but the whole 
class of engines on the same work was debited in the coal 
sheets with over 30 pounds per mile. Allowances have to 
be made for lighting up, for standing, for shunting, and so 
on; and nearly as much coal may be, so to speak, wasted in 
this way as is actually utilized. An express engine may 
work for five hours out of the twenty-four, steam being kept 
up for seventeen hours while the engine is standing. On 
the other hand, a locomotive may work for nineteen hours 
out of the twenty-four. Again, the mileage of an engine is, 
taken alone, no test of its economy. It may mean anything 
or nothing. We have to consider not only the mileage, but 
the speed and the load. But perhaps the most important 
source of error of all is neglect of the quality of the coal. 
It does not pay, when carriage becomes a serious item, to 
buy cheap coal. In drawing a comparison, therefore, be- 
tween the performances of an engine working in the South, 
and one working in the North, the relative merits of the 
coal used must not for a moment be lost sight of Further- 
more, individuals do not attach anything like sufficient im- 
portance to the influence of speed. They forget that for 
any given velocity, the consumption of fuel will be aug- 
mented in t«he ratio of the square of the speed. Thus, for 
example, if an engine runs at sixty miles an hour, it must 
exert four times the horse-power needed to run at thirty 
miles an hour with the same load, and the consumption per 
mile will be doubled from this cause alone. We may add 
that in practice the fuel bill will be augmented much more 
than this, for reasons which will be readily understood by 
engineers. 

The stroke of an engine never grows shorter, although it 
is constantly being cut off. 



87 
AN EXPERIMENT WITH A LOCOMOTIVE. 

A locomotive engineer who takes an intelligent interest 
in operating his engine economically, relates the particulars 
of runs where careful efforts were made to test the differ- 
ence in the consumption of coal that resulted with the re- 
verse lever hooked back as far as practicable and the throttle 
full open, and running with a late cut-off, and the steam 
throttled, or the difference between throttling and cutting off 
short. 

First Case — A train of 19 loaded and 12 empty cars, 
rated at 25 loads. Run from Mansfield to Lodge, distance, 
8. 6 miles, nearly level. Forced the train into speed, and then 
pulled the reverse lever to the center notch, and opened the 
throttle wide. The engine jarred a good deal, due, doubtless, 
to the excessive compression, but the speed was maintained. 
Twenty-two minutes were occupied by the run, a speed of 
23 miles per hour, and 17 shovelfuls of coal were con- 
sumed in keeping up steam. By weighing, it was found a 
shovelful averaged 14 pounds, making the coal used per 
train mile average 27.7 pounds. 

Second Case — A train of 25 loads and six empties, rated 
as 28 loaded cars. Ran, as in the first case, from Mansfield 
to Lodge. Pulled the train into speed in as nearly as possi- 
ble the same time as in the previous test, but, when the 
speed was attained, kept the reverse lever in the nine-inch 
notch, and throttled the steam to keep down the speed. 
Although the train was rated two loads heavier than the pre- 
vious one, it consisted mostly of merchandise, while the 
other was heavy freight, and handled decidedly easier. Hav- 
ing pulled both trains over 40 miles before arriving at Mans- 
field, there was full means of judging which was the easier 
train to handle. 

The run was made in 24 minutes, two minutes longer 
than in the other case, and 32 shovelfuls of coal were used, 
being at the rate of 52 pounds per train mile. In both 
instances the fire was as nearly as possible the same depth at 
the beginning and end of the run. 

Our correspondent thus concludes his narrative: " It is 
interesting to know that on the first occasion 238 pounds of 
coal were used to do the same work in less time than 448 
pounds were required to do under the changed circumstances 
of the second trip; showing that a gain of 88 per cent, may 
be effected by running with full throttle and early cut off." 



88 



FAST AMERICAN STEAMERS. 

The tollowing is a list of twenty-eight fast American 
steamers of from 2,2CX) to 4,000 tons, all of which have 
shown a sea speed of more than fifteen knots for six consecu- 
tive hours, and from which would be made the selection of ' 
t^essels to be held in reserve for cruisers: 



Vessels. Hailing Port. Tonnage. 

Newport New York 2,735 

City of Augusta Savannah 2,870 

City of Puebia New York 2,624 

Queen of the Pacific. . . .Portland, Or 2,728 

Alameda Philadelphia 3» 158 

Mariposa San Francisco 3, 158 

State of California San Francisco 2,266 

Alliance. New York 2,985 

Louisiana New York 2,840 

Ohio Philadelphia 3,126 

Saratoga New York 2,426 

City of Alexandria New York 2,480 

Nacoochee Savannah 2,680 

Chattahoochee New York 2,676 



2,354 
3^264 
2,943 
2,943 
3.531 



Roanoke New York 

Excelsior New York 

Alamo New York 

Lampasas New York 

El Paso New York 

El Dorado San Francisco 3,53i 

H. F. Dimock Boston .... 2,625 

Herman Winter Boston 2,625 

Seminole New York 2,557 

El Monte New York 3,53i 

San Pedro New York 3, 119 

San Pablo New York 4,064 

Cherokee New York 2,557 

Santa Rosa New York 2,417 

A WARNING TO ENGINEERS. 



Speed. 
17.9 
16.5 
16.5 
16.5 
16.5 
16.5 
16 
16 
16 
15.6 
15.4 

15-4 

15.4 
15.4 
15.4 
15-4 
15.4 
15-4 
15.4 
154 
154 
15.4 
15-4 
15.4 
15.4 
15-4 
15 



Never take the cap off a bearing and remove the upper 
brass to see if things are working well, for you never can 
replace the brass exactly in its former position, and you will 
find that the bearing will heat soon afterward, on. account 
of your unnecessary interference. If there is any trouble, 
you will find it out ^oon enough. 



59 

THE PREVENTION OF ACCIDENTS FROM RUN. 
NING MACHINERY. 
A German commission was appointed to investigate acci- 
dents in mills and factories, and draw up a series of rules for 
their prevention. Some of these rules are as follows: 

SHAFTING. 

All work on transmissions, especially the cleaning and 
lubricating of shafts, 'bearings and pulleys, as well as the 
binding, lacing, shipping and unshipping of belts, must be 
performed only by men especially instructed in, or charged 
with, such labors. Females and boys are not permitted to 
do this work. 

The lacing, binding or packing of belts, if they lie upon 
either shaft or pulleys during the operation, must be strictly 
prohibited. During the lacing and connecting of belts, 
strict attention is to be paid to their removal from revolv- 
ing parts, either by hanging them upon a hook fastened to 
the ceiling, or in any other practical manner; the same 
applies to smaller belts, which are occasionally unshipped 
and run idle. 

While the shafts are in motion, they are to be lubricated, 
or the lubricating devices examined only when observing the 
following rules : a. The person performing this labor must 
either do it while standing upon the floor, or by the use of b. 
Firmly located stands or steps, especially constructed for the 
purpose, so as to afford a good and substantial footing to the 
workman, c. Firmly constructed sliding ladders, running 
on bars, d. Sufficiently high and strong ladders, especially 
constructed for this purpose, which, by appropriate safe- 
guards (hooks above or iron points below), afford security 
against slipping. 

The cleaning and dusting of shafts, as well as of belt or 
rope pulleys mounted upon them, is to be performed only 
when they are in motion, either while the workman is 
standing : a, on the floor ; or b, on a substantially con- 
structed stage or steps ; in either case, moreover, only by 
the use of suitable cleaning implements (duster, brush, etc.), 
provided with a handle of suitable length. The cleaning of 
shaft bearings, which can be done either while standing upon 
the floor or by the use of the safeguards mentioned above, 
must be done only by the use of long-handled implements. 
The cleaning of the shafts, while in motion, with cleaning 
waste or rags held in the hand, is to be strictly prohibited. 
^ All shaft -bearings are to be provided with automatic 
lubricating apparatus. 



90 

Only after the engineer has given the well understood 

signal, plainly audible in the work-rooms, is the motive en- 
gine to be started. A similar signal shall also be given to 
a certain number of work-rooms, if only their part of the 
machinery is to be set in motion. 

If any work other than the lubricating and cleaning of 
the shafting is to be performed while the motive engine is 
standing idle, the engineer is to be notified of it, and in what 
room or place such work is going on, and he must then allow 
the engine to remain idle until he has been informed by 
proper parties that the work is finished. 

Plainly visible and easily accessible alarm apparatus shall 
be located at proper places in the ^vork-rooms, to be used in 
cases of accident to signal to the engineer to stop the 
motive engine at once. This alarm apparatus shall always 
be in \vorking order, and of such a nature that a plainly 
audible and easily understood alarm can at once be sent to 
the engineer in charge. 

All projecting wedges, keys, set-screws, nuts, grooves, or 
other parts of machinery, having sharp edges, shall be sub- 
stantially covered. 

All belts and ropes which pass from the shafting of one 
story to that of another shall be guarded by fencing or 
casing of wood, sheet-iron or wire netting four feet six 
inches high. 

The belts passing from shafting in the story under- 
neath and actuating machinery in the room overhead, 
thereby passing through the ceiling, must be inclosed wdth 
proper casing or netting corresponding in height from the 
floor to the construction of the machine. When the con- 
struction of the machine does not admit of the introduction 
of casing, then, at least, the opening in the floor through 
which the belt or rope passes should be inclosed wdth a 
low casing at least four inches high. 

Fixed shafts, as well as ordinary shafts, pulleys and fly- 
wheels, running at a little height above the floor, and being 
within the locality where work is performed, shall be securely 
covered. 

These rules and regulations, intended as preventions of 
accidents to workmen, are to be made known by being con- 
spicuously posted in all localities where labor is performed. 

ENGINEERS. 

The attendant of a motive engine is responsible for the 
preservation and cleaning of the engine, as w^ell as the floor 
of the engine-room. The minute inspection and lubrication 



^ 91 

of the several parts of the engine is to be done before it is 
set in motion. If any irregularities are observed during the 
performance of the engine, it is to be stopped at once, and 
the proper person informed of the reason. 

The tightening of wedges, keys, nuts, etc., of revolving 
or v^orking parts, is to be avoided as much as possible during 
the motion of the engine. 

When large motive engines are required to be turned 
over the dead point by manual labor, the steam supply valve 
is to be shut off. 

After stoppage, either for rest or other cause, the engine 
is to be started only after a vv^ell-understood and plainly 
audible signal has been given. The engineer must stop his 
engine at once upon receipt of an alarm signal. 

The engineer has the efficient illumination of the engine- 
room, and especially the parts moved by the engine, under his 
charge. 

^ The engineer must strictly forbid the entrance of unau- 
thorized persons into the engine-room. 

An attendant of a steam or other powder motor, who is 
charged with the supervision of the engine as his only duty, 
is permitted to leave his post only after he has turned the 
care of the engine over to the person relieving him in the 
discharge of his duties. 

The engineer is charged with the proper preservation of 
his engine, and means therefor. He must at once inform 
his superior of any defect noticed by him. 

The engineer on duty is permitted only to wear closely 
fitting and buttoned garments. The wearing of aprons or 
neckties with loose, fluttering ends, is strictly prohibited. 

GEARING. 

Every work on gearing, such as cleaning and lubricating 
shafts, bearings, journals, pulleys and belts, as well as the 
tying, lacing and shipping of the latter, is to be performed 
only by persons either skilled in such work, or charged with 
doing it. Females and children are absolutely prohibited 
from doing such work. 

When lacing, binding or repairing the belts, they must 
either be taken down altogether from the revolving shaft or 
pulley, or be kept clear of them in an appropriate manner. 
Belts unshipped for other reasons are to be treated in the 
same manner. 

The lubricating of bearings and the inspection of lubri- 
cating apparatus must, when the shafting is in motion, be 
performed either while standing upon the floor or by the use 



92 

of steps or ladders, specially adapted for this purpose, or 
proper staging or sliding ladders. The lubrication of \ 
wheel work and the greasing of belts and ropes with solid 
lubricants is absolutely prohibited during the motion of the ! 
parts. 

In case of accident, any workman is authorized to sound 
the alarm signal at once by the use of the apparatus 
located in the room for this purpose, to the engineer in 
chai-ge. 

The following rules, classified under proper sub-heads, 
are published by the Technische Vej-ein^ at Augsburg: 

TO PREVENT ACCIDENT BY THE SHAFTING. 

While the shafts are in motion, it is strictly prohibited: 
a. To approach them with waste or rags, in order to clean 
them. b. In order to clean them, to raise above the floor 
by means of a ladder or other convenience. 

It is allowable to clean the shafting and pulleys only while i 
in motion.. 

These parts of the machinery must be cleaned by means 
of a long-handled brush only, and while standing upon the 
floor. 

The workmen charged with these or other functions 
about the shafting must wear jackets with tight sleeves, and 
closely buttoned up; they must wear neither aprons nor 
neckties with loose ends. 

Driving pulleys, couplings and bearings are to be cleaned 
only when at rest. 

This labor should, in general, be performed only after the 
close of the day's work. If performed during the time of 
an accidental idleness of the machinery, or during the time 
of rest, or in the morning before the commencement of 
work, the engineer in charge is to be informed. 

HOW TO FIND THE HORSE-POWER OF AN 
ENGINE. 

Multiply the square of the diameter of the cylinder by 
o 7854, and, if the cut-off is not known, multiply the product 
by four-fifths of the boiler pressure ; multiply the last 
product by the speed of the piston in feet per minute (or 
twice the stroke in feet and decimals, multiplied by the revo- 
lutions per minute). Divide the final product by 33.000. 
and the horse-power will be the answer. 



93 
THE EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON IRON. 

It is a well-known principle that heat expands all sub- 
stances, except clay, which would follow the rule if it were 
not for the water contained, which, being evaporated, con- 
tracts the body of the clay. Heat thus expands all bodies 
— and so of the reverse. In the absence of heat, or for the 
want of heat, all substances contract. Every one knows 
that, when iron is hot, it is pliable and " tough ; " that is, 
its particles hold together with increased tenacity, up to a 
point of melting, when the particles are so far set apart as 
to have no more adhesion than other fluids. Every practical 
man knows that the reverse obtains in proportion to the 
absence of heat. Not only the woodman knows that his ax 
is liable to break" at a low degree of heat, but the ordinary 
teamster knows that, under the same circumstances, the tire of 
his wheel is liable to break if it strikes with extra force some 
obstruction. So of chains, and other structures of iron. An 
engineer remarked that, on taking out his engine, one frosty 
morning, he let the steam on too suddenly ; the effect of the 
jar was to take about four inches in length out of the coupling 
shaft between the wheels of the locomotive. 

Now for the application to the Ashtabula disaster. The 
bridges of that day, more than now, perhaps, depended upon 
the strength of the bolts which held the ends of all the vari- 
ous iron bars in place. It will be perceived, that, if these 
bolts were to give way, the whole structure would unravel, 
not unlike a stocking, in some degree. The bridge was 
composed of long bars of iron held together at the ends by 
these j^ or ^ inch bolts; if for want of heat those bars con- 
tracted, the 1-16 or ^ of an inch each, they would act as a 
shear on the bolt, and, being " cold " and short, would be 
very likely, under the tension, to break; particularly when 
under the weight of a heavy snow, and the train, drawn by 
two engines, under quickened motion. The jar of the train 
v/ould be likely to finish the rupture commenced by the 
" frost " or absence of heat, and, when once started, would 
move rapidly on to the fatal downfall and destructive fin- 
ish. 

I believe it is admitted, that cold is not a principle, but the 
absence of heat. 

What is said to be the largest railroad station in the 
world has recently been opened at Frankfort -on-the-Main. 
It covers an area of 100,000 square feet, and cost 33,000,000 
marks. 



94 
HIGH SPEED GEARING. 

During the last few years, and particularly since the 
adoption of double-heliacal teeth, a great increase has been 
made in speed at which gearing is run, and, in many cases, 
there are now successfully adopted speeds which in former 
days would have been regarded as utterly impracticable. 
The most striking instances of this which we have come 
across, is in the case of a pair of double-heliacal wheels at 
the works of Messrs. R. Johnson & Nephew, the well-known 
wire-drawers of Manchester. These wheels, which were cast 
by Messrs. Sharpies & Co., of Ramsbottom, Lancashire, are 
12 in. wide on the face, by 6 ft. 3 in. diameter, and they have 
now been running for over a year at 220 revolutions per 
minute, the pitch-line speed being thus 4,319 ft. per minute. 
Notwithstanding this enormous speed, the wheels run with 
scarcely any noise, and their workipg has been most satis- 
factory. This is the highest speed we have heard of for 
geared wheels, running iron to iron, and the fact that it has 
been adopted with success, is a most interesting one. 

The large gear on the Corliss engine at the Centennial 
Exhibition was 30 feet in diameter, outside, and ran at 36 
revolutions per minute. It had a 24-in. face, and the speed 
of the pitch-line is about 3,360 ft. per minute. This speed is 
exceeded by a similar gear, also made by Mr. Corliss, which 
is now running in a mill in Massachusetts. It is 30 ft. in 
outside diameter, and has a 30-in. face. It makes 50 revolu- 
tions per minute, and the speed of the pitch-line is not far 
from .4,670 ft. per minute. This is probably the highest 
speed at which any gear has yet been run continuously. 

The Corliss gears are all accurately shaped by a revolving 
cutter; but it is probable that Messrs. Sharpies & Co.'s gears 
are not cut, but cast, and then finished up by hand. If that 
is the case, their performance is much more remarkable than 
that of the Corliss gears. 

THE WORLD'S STEAM ENGINES. 

According to the Berlin Bureau of Statistics, there is in 
the world the equivalent of 46.000,000 horse-power in steam 
engines, 3,000,000 being in locomotives. In engines other 
than locomotives, the United States comes first with 7,500,- 
000 horse-power; England next with 7,000,000 horse power; 
Germany 4,500,000 horse-power ; France 3,000,000 horse- 
power, and Austria 1,500,000. Four-fifths of the steam 
engines now in operation are said to have been built within 
the last twenty-five year<i 



95 
VALUABLE INSTRUCTIONS FOR ENGINEERS. 

1. Condition of the Water — The first duty of an engi- 
neer, when he enters his boiler-room in the morning, is to 
ascertain how many gauges of water there are in his boilers. 
Never unbank or replenish the fires until this is done. 
Accidents have occurred, and many boilers have been en- 
tirely ruined, from neglect of this precaution. 

2. Low Water — In case of low water, immediately 
cover the fire with ashes, or, if no ashes are at hand, use 
fresh coal. Do not turn on the feed under the circum- 
stances, nor tamper with or open the safety valve. Let the 
steam outlets as they are. 

3. In Case of Foaming — Close the throttle, and keep 
closed long enough to show true level of water. If that 
level is sufficiently high, feeding and blowing will usually 
suffice to correct the evil. In case of viole^nt foaming, 
caused by dirty water, or change from salt to fresh, or vice 
versa^ in addition to the action above stated, check draft, 
and cover fires with fresh coal. 

4. Leaks — When leaks are discovered, they should be 
repaired as soon as possible. 

5. Blowing Off^Blow down under a pressure not ex- 
ceeding twenty pounds, at least once in two weeks — every 
Saturday night would be better. In case the feed becomes 
muddy, blow out six or eight inches every day. W^here 
surface blow-cocks are used, they should be often opened 
for a few moments at a time. 

6. Filling Up the Boiler — After blowing down, allow 
the boiler to become cool before filling again. Cold water 
pumped into hot boilers, is very injurious from sudden 
contraction. 

7. Exterior of Boiler — Care should be taken that no 
water comes in contact with the exterior of the boiler, either 
from leaky joints or other causes. 

8. Removing Deposit and Sediment — In tubular boilers, 
the hand-holes should be often opened, and all collections 
removed from over the fire; also, when boilers are fed in 
front, and blow off through the same pipe, the collection 
of mud or sediment in the rear end should be ofr^n removed. 

9. Safety-Valves — Raise the safety-valves cautiously, 
and frequently, as they are liable to become fast in their 
seats, and useless for the purpose intended. 

10. Safety- Valves and Pressure Gauge — Should tne 
gauge at any time indicate the limit of pressure allowed by 



\ 



96 

the inspector, see that the safety-valves are blowing off. lij 
case of difference, notify the inspector. 

11. Gauge Cocks — Glass Gauges — Keep gauge cocks 
clear and in constant use. Glass gauges should not be relied 
on altogether. 

12. Blisters — When a blister appears, there must be no 
delay in having it carefully examined and trimmed, oi 
patched, as the case may require. 

13. Clean Sheets — Particular care should be taken to 
keep sheets and parts of boilers exposed to the fire perfectly 
clean ; also all tubes, flues and connections well sv^'ept. This 
is particularly necessary where wood or soft coal is used as 
fuel. 

14. General care of Boilers and Connections — Under 
all circumstances keep the gauges, cocks, etc., clean and in 
good order, and things generally, in and about the engine 
and boiler-room, in a neat condition. 

LOCOMOTIVE FUEL IN INDIA. 

One of the greatest problems of Indian railway adminis* 
tration, says London Engineerings is that of fuel supply. 
The railways use wood, coke and coal, and the use of petro- 
leum is now being begun. Of 700,000 tons of coal consumed 
in 1886, over 240,000 tons were English coal, the cost of 
which varied from 12s. to 15s. per ton. At the Umaria 
collieries, which supply the G. I. P. and the Indian Midland 
Railways, the cost of the coal at the pit's mouth is stated to 
be about los. for large, and 6s. for small coals per ton. This, 
it need hardly be added, is much higher than the average 
cost of English coal in like circumstances. On the North- 
western system, however, trials have been made of a petro- 
leum fuel, with results that are said to be highly satisfactory. 
The cost of the petroleum fuel per 100 miles worked is stated 
to have been 36.8 rupees, as compared with 51 to 57 for coal 
and 16 to 30 for wood. The average evaporative power of 
petroleum fuel is, however, said to be 9.82 pounds of water, 
as compared with only 6.91 pounds for fuel, and 7.71 pounds 
for patent fuel per pound consumed. The average consump- 
tion of the petroleum fuel was 28 pounds per train mile, and 
the cost of adapting locomotive engines for the burning of 
petroleum is said to vary from 500 to 868 rupees (50/. to 



97 
VALUABLE INFORMATION FOR ENGINEERS. 

To find the capacity of a cylinder in gallons, multiply the 
area in inches by the length of stroke in inches, and it will 
give the total number of cubic inches ; divide this by 231, 
and you will have the capacity in gallons. 

The U. S. standard gallon measures 231 cubic inches, and 
contains 8j^ pounds of distilled water. 

The mean pressure of the atmosphere is usually estimated 
at 14. 7 pounds per square inch. 

The average amount of coal used for steam boilers is 12 
pounds per hour for each square foot of grate. 

The average weight of anthracite coal is 53 pounds to one 
cubic foot of coal ; bituminous, about 48 pounds to the cubic 
foot. 

Locomotives average a consumption of 3,000 gallons of 
water per 100 miles run. _ 

To determine the circumference of a circle, multiply the 
diameter by 3.1416. 

To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a 
column of water, multiply the height of the column in 
feet by .434, approximately, every foot elevation is equal to 
% pound pressure per square inch, allowing for ordinary 
friction. 

The area of the steam piston, multiplied by the steam 
pressure, gives the total amount of pressure that can be 
exerted. The area of the water piston, multiplied by the 
pressure of water per square inch gives the resistance. A 
margin must be made between the power and the resistance 
to move the pistons at the required speed, from 20 to 40 per 
cent., according to speed and other conditions. 

To determine the diameter of a circle, multiply circum- 
ference by .31831. 

Steam at atmospheric pressure flows into a vacuum at the 
rate of about 1550 feet per second, and into the atmosphere 
at the rate of 650 feet per second. 

To determine the area of a circle, multiply the square of 
diameter by .7854. 

A cubic inch of water evaporated under ordinary atmos- 
pheric pressure is converted into one cubic foot of steam 
(approximately). 

By doubling the diameter of a pipe, you will increase its 
capacity four times. 

In calculating horse-power of tubular or flue boilers, con- 
siaer 15 square feet of heating surface equivalent to one 
nominal horse-power. 



98 
THE ENGINEER. 

How greatly an engineer resembles his trade ! 
Both being so " fearfully and wonderfully made. - 
Brave, frank, open-hearted and manly; no fear, 
Be he " high " or " low pressure, " of a good engineer. 
Like their ■' engines," 'tis likely they all have their faults ; 
But what " class " are " perfect " 'neath heaven's blue vaults J 
Some work " non condensing " while others " condense ; ' 
Some work by " expansion," all use common sense. 

Some " carry high pressure, " and as " boilers " oft do, 

" Give way "to that " pressure," collapsing a " flue." 

No matter what " tests " or " how heavy their load," 

Be it said to their credit, they seldom " explode," 

Though some (though all the fraternity don't) 

Will " go on a bust " when their " boilers " just won't ; 

At abuse he'll " fire up " and " prime," " foam " and " cough;" '^ 

Just speak to him rudely and see him " blow off." 

He's mostly " in line " and correctly " upright," 

Though " eccentric " full oft, and a " crank " at first sight. 

His visage is truth's " indicator," a " gauge " 

In his " clear " even " fires " in his furnace that rage ; 

Energetic and pushing, symmetric in " beam," 

He, llike a good " valve," " works " a " full head " of steam. 

On his " guides " he " works smooth " with no " knocking 

around," 
In good men and " engines," slight " friction " less " sound." 

Sometimes they've a " cross-head," tee-head " if you will ; 
But then they must have them " good work to fulfill. " 
When you meet this same " cross-head," look out for " loud 

knocks," 
If he's " out of line " badly or has a " hot box." 
And, brothers, some of us are " rotary," you know. 
Some " run at high speed," while the others " run slow ; " 
Still, we've a good " check valve," our conscience, you see, 
KeeD it well " lubricated," not " gummed up " but " free." 

Have never a " screw loose," nor charity lacking ; 

Keep clear of the " hump," save to use it as " packing." 

Our " safety-valve " let fidelity be 

With " area" large, on its " seat " working free." 

Your "boiler " keep " full," but don't get " full " yourself. 

For when one gets " full," he'll be " laid on the shelf;" 



99 

Keep your life and your " boilers " of " mud " and " scale ** 

clean; 
Shun " compounds, " " corrosive, " rum, whisky and gin. 

The " poker " to " draw " " fires," on this lay great str'?:.':^ 
" Draw-poker," however's, a " grate bar " to success. 
Be honor your " governor," not alone " automatic," 
Quite " sensitive " be it, not too aristocratic. 
Practice " full economy ; " keep " everything bright ; " 
Have a " man-head ; " keep sober, but keep your " keys " 

"tight." 
In life's race " run forward ; " on each " lap " try to " lead ; " 
" Run steady," " exhausting " all means for " full speed." 

When your "license runs out," to your "doctor" you flee, 
And death's " point of cut-off" you plainly can see ; 
And done with life's " labor," absolved from all cares. 
May our tombstones bear record, "laid up for repairs." 

— Henry y. Pate^ 



THE PASSENGER BRAKEMAN. 

On leaving Gotham, down the aisle, 
I saw him come with scornful smile; 
Flowed from his lips these words compressed : 
" Thiscar'sforallpointsNorthandWest! " 

He, later, once more loomed In view — 
'Twas understood by one or two — 
This jumping jumble, this fanfare: 
" Troytwentyminutesbreakfastthere! " 



In time again, he through the door 
Burst In, and dashed by — as before - 
With one of his chain lightning calls | 
Of" Buff'lochangcforNag'raFalls! " 



Next, when we'd crossed Ohio's plain — 

And Indiana's — and the train 

Jarred, swayed and stopped, he deigned to state 

" Ourengine'stelescopedafreight! " 

And, when at last my trip was done — 
Reached was the land of setting sun, 
With Babel sound he gave this shou^i 
" Chicagopassengersallout! " 



lOO 

HOW FAST CAN A LOCOMOTIVE RUN > 
.articles treating of the question as to how fast a locomo- 
xnotive can run are appearing again in the railway and 
mechanical papers, after a considerable sleep. One of the 
latest of these articles places the limit at 80 miles per hour, 
and states six reasons for its conclusion that a greater speed 
cannot be attained, as follows : 

a. Because no greater velocity has ever been attained. 

b. Because of the resistance of the air. 

c. Because of the back pressure in the cylinders. 

d. Because of the amount of power which must "no 
doubt be lost in imparting violent motions to masses of metal 
which can make no return when coming to rest. The swing- 
ing of the engine, the excessive vibration of its parts, and 
the jar and concussion all operate to the same end, and tend 
to keep down the speed. " 

e. Because of " the extraordinary retarding influence of 
very moderate rising gradients. " 

f. Because of the coupling rod — " it appears to be be- 
yond question that coupling an engine tend* to keep down 
the speed. On this point, we have, however, nothing i7t the 
way of proof to offer. " 

To this view the Railway Review (Chicago) takes excep- 
tion, saying : " Now the remarkable fact, which appears in 
all of these articles, is that no lijnitations whatever are placed 
on the future change in design of the locomotive. This alone 
removes all force from the argument. * * * In 
conclusion we feel obliged to state that not one objection has 
yet been raised to speeds of 100 miles per hour that cannot 
be readily surmounted. We have now locomotives which 
will make more steam than can be used with heavy trains at 
60 miles per hour. With level roads, improved valve gear, 
high pressures and independent blast, we cannot believe that 
the statement * that speeds of more than 80 miles per hour 
are mythical ' will prove acceptable to careful thinkers. '^ 

INGENIOUS WAY OF COOLING A JOURNAL. 

An ingenious way of cooling a journal that cannot be 
stopped is to hang a short endless belt on the shaft next to 
the box and let the lower part of it run in cold water. The 
turning of the shaft carries the belt slowly around, bringing 
fresh cold water continually in contact with the heated 
shaft, and without spilling or spattering a drop of the water. 



THE COST OF A CAR WHEEL. 

Advices from Eaton, Pa., state that free-trade orators 
in that section have asserted that a 500 pound car wheel 
soldfjr$i2, and that the entire cost of labor was only 85 
cents. They state the cas3 in such a manner as to try to 
mislead the public into believing that the manufacturer 
pockets enormous profits. In answer to this, the following 
expert testimony has been given: 

Chilled car wheels are made from this kind of pig iron, 
and a 500 pound wheel sells at $8, not $12. Here is the 
inaccuracy in the free-trade statement. The company offers 
to furnish 10,000 of these wheels at $8 if the orators in 
question will put up the money in advance. 

Now as to the labor item. The company states that the 
average cost of charcoal pig iron used in casting^car wheels is 
$26.50 a ton, from which four wheels can be cast. Old car 
wheels to the extent of 25 per cent, can be used, which pro- 
portion at $19 per ton, the present price, would bring the 
cost of the metal, unmelted — three-quarters charcoal pig 
iron, one-quarter old car wheels — ^^to $24.62^2 per ton. 
The item of labor in this amount is 90 per cent, of the 
whole. The labor, therefore, on the metal for one wheel, 
unmelted, would be one-quarter of 90 per cent, this cost of 
$24.62^, or $6. 16, and this the wheel manufacturer pays 
out before the materials come to his mills. Then the items 
as follows, for one wheel: Cost of melting, core drying, etc., 
20 cents; sand, molds and cores, flour and facing, 15 cents; 
foundry labor and molding and casting, 85 cents; outside 
work, unloading pig iron, coal, etc., 10 cents; repairs, wear 
and tear, taxes, insurance, motive power and delivery charges 
consume 40 cents more, and the cost is $7.86, leaving the 
company just 14 cents profit on each wheel. 

The company adds that " the fact is that all labor 
required in making car wheels from the raw material or min- 
erals used fully equals 75 per cent, of the cost. The mold- 
ers who make wheels earn $3.50 a day, as against $1.25 paid 
in England. Should all the raw materials up to the finished 
wheel, be reduced to the English standard, the vheels could 
probably be made at a reasonable profit to the manufac- 
turer." 



Locomotives are in use on the Lake Shore Railroad 
which carry 180 pounds per square inch. 



^ OUR RAILROADS IN 1890. 

It ig doubtful if there could be selected a better means of 
studying the wonderful growth of this country within recent 
years, than by an examination of the statistics presented in 
" Poor's Manual of Railroads " for 1888. As an example of 
this, it may be stated that at the end of 1887 there were in 
the country 149,913 miles of railroad, an increase during a 
period of seven years of 56,564 miles, the rate of increase 
being more than sixty per cent. From 1830 to 1840 there 
were built 2,814 miles ; from 1840 to 1850 there were built 
6,203 niiles ; from 1850 to i860 there were built 22,279 
miles; from 1870 to 1880 there were built 40,435 miles, 
while, as shown above, there have been built, in the last 
seven years, 56,564 miles ; probable mileage in 1890, at 
sanie ratio, 175,000. 

Viewed in the light of our present knowledge, the state- 
ment made by Henry V. Poor, in his " Manual " for 1880, 
that " the 100,000 miles of to-day will in ten years be 200,- 
000; the investment of $6,000,000,000 to-day will in ten 
years equal $10,000,000,000," does not seem to be nearly so 
extravagant as some people thought it was when it was 
written. 

The total mileage of railroad? constructed in 1887 
exceeded 13,000 miles ^ — a greater total, by some 1,100 
miles, than the mileage constructed in any previous year. 
Should the construction of the next three years average an 
equal amount, the total at the end of 1890 will be about 
190,000 miles. In any case, it is safe to say the figures will 
reach 175,000 miles, or only about 12% per cent, less than 
the estimate made. With an average increase of 10,000 
miles per annum, during the decade ending with 1900, we 
will have, at the opening of the twentieth century, a total 
mileage of close on 300,000 miles. 

THE ESTRADE HIGH-SPEED LOCOMOTIVE. 

The Estrada locomotive, La Parisienne, specially de- 
signed for high speeds, and built in the shops of M. J. 
Boulet, at Paris, is to undergo a series of ofiicial trials. It 
is fitted with driving wheels somewhat over eight feet in 
diameter, and the speed upon which the designer, M. 
Estrade, figures for running, is somewhat like 78 miles per 
hour. Its length is about 32 feet, exclusive of tender, and 
its weight, when empty, 38 tons. The results of the tests 
will be awaited with some interest. 



103 ^ 

QUALIFICATIONS OF AN ENGINEER, 

The management and control of a steam engine requires 
greater intellectual capacity than most of the other trades 
where manual labor enters into a large portion of the work 
performed. But engineers and firemen are exposed to no 
greater dangers, and are liable to no more diseases, if they 
are prudent, vigilant, regular in their habits and willing to 
follow the well-known rules by which they should be gov- 
erned, than other men. 

The first thing for them to learn is prudence, and a will- 
ingness to observe the precautions recommended by those of 
longer experience than themselves, whereby they will follow 
well-established rules, and not make hazardous experiments, 
or run risks that are more or less rash and foolhardy, wherein 
success is a stroke of luck that only tends to develop a fool- 
ish braggadocio. ^ 

Further, the engineer should have a character that is 
calm, resolute, quick to act and cool; for the man who 
loses his head the minute there is an accident, is incapaci- 
tated for this work. If he is a locomotive engineer, his 
obedience should be that of a soldier, who receives his order 
and executes it without a questioning thought. Every sense 
should be on the alert, even to that of smell, that he may 
become immediately aware of burning oil or bearings heated 
by their work. 

As for temperance, a man should not forget that he 
holds in his hands the lives of a large number of persons, 
and a very little negligence will transform into an instru- 
ment of death, a machine which has few dangerous proper- 
ties when controlled with calm vigilance and presence of 
mind. As a man's mind depends largely upon his personal 
comfort, this same temperance should be carried into all of 
his walks in life ; he should see that his food and clothing 
are suited to the work to be done, taking especial care to 
avoid excesses of all kinds, and exercise great caution when 
it is necessary to pass from one place to another where 
there are considerable variations of temperature. 

Finally, he should avoid that presumption which leads 
the younger man to think that he is too quickly fitted to take 
charge of an engine, and the older, that he has learned all 
that there is to know. Therefore, before entering on this 
work, it is necessary that he should be thoroughly familiar 
with the machine and its methods of action. We further 
advise him not to be content with merely watching an 
engine in operation, but to make sketches, and then, if he 



I04 

will take the pains to copy them to a scale, he will soon find 
the work as easy as it is interesting. While studying, he 
should familiarize himself with the action of the different 
parts, and the best and simplest means of taking down and 
erecting parts of the plant, so that repairs and inspection 
can be performed with the least possible delay. But let him 
be careful not to touch those parts that can only be handled 
with tools w^hich he does not possess. The greater portion 
of every machine, such as stuffing boxes, pistons, packing, 
cylinder covers, lubricating apparatus, valve motion, the 
cocks and valves, and all caps and covers that must be re- 
moved to clean the interior, can usually be adjusted with the 
ordinary engine-room appliances. Great care should be 
taken, however, to replace each piece in the position it 
originally occupied. 

In order that slight repairs may be well and quickly 
done, it is well if the engineer adds to the practice, which 
he may obtain in an engine-room, that which can best be 
acquired in the erecting shop of some good manufactory. 
The same course will also be of equal value to the firemen, 
that they may work intelligently under the guidance of the 
engineer. 

For manipulation, the engineer is almost wholly depend- 
ent on his experience Avith each engine. In this he must 
first have recourse to the instructions of the builder, or the 
engineer whom he succeeds. It is a good idea to handle the 
engine before one of these persons, and thus learn the limits 
of motion, and the action of the moving parts. In this way 
he will most quickly learn the proper amount of opening to 
give to the throttle, the injector, the valves for admission, 
exhaust and the pumps; for, although the principles may be 
well learned, practice alone can show the best way of using 
them. It is well, when learning in this way, to go through 
the motions, for the first time, when the engine is not under 
steam. In other words, every engineer, however well 
instructed he may be, will find it advisable to take a few 
lessons on the particular plant of which he is about to take 
charge, and this also applies to the assistants and firemen. In 
large plants, it is frequently insisted upon by the ov/ners. 



There are no less than twenty-six lines of passenger 
steamers, with weekly sailings from this country and ports in 
Europe, and official returns for 1887 give something ap- 
proaching 12,000,000 tons of shipping of all kinds, crossing 
and recrossing. 



^o5 

MANIPULATION OF NEW ENGINES. 

After engines have been set up, they must be adjusted to 
/heir work. It is not every man that can do this properly, 
for it requires experience and consideration to determine 
exactly what is to be done. A new engine is a raw machine, 
so to speak, and, no matter how carefully the work has been 
done upon it, it is not in the same condition that it will be 
in a few weeks, or after the actual work it does has worn 
its bearings smooth and true. In the best machine-work, 
there are more or less asperities of surface, and very much 
more friction than than there will be later on. Bearings and 
boxes are not fitted under strain ; they are fitted as they 
stand, independently in the shop, and this entails a condi- 
tion of things which actual work may show to be faulty. 
For this reason an engineer .should not go at a new engine 
hammer and tongs, and try to suppress at once every slight 
noise or click that he may hear. Neither shouldTlie key up 
solid, or screw down hard, the working shafts and bearings, 
for the first few days. It is much better to let the things 
run easily for a while, at the expense of a little noise, rather 
than to risk cutting before the details get used to each other. 
Many good engines have been disabled by too great zeal on 
the part of those in charge, when a little forbearance would 
have been much better. Pounding, caused by bad adjust- 
ment, or valve setting, and pounding caused by new bear- 
ings not in intimate relation with each other, are quite 
different in character, and a careful engineer will not make 
haste to decide upon the remedy until he has indicated and 
investigated the engine, and found out exactly where the 
trouble is. Not long ago we saw a new engine badly cut in 
its guides from this very cause ; a slight jar was noticed, and 
the engineer, arguing that the crosshead was the seat of the 
noise, set out the gibs so much that they seized aijd plowed 
some bad scores in the cast-iron guides, which will always 
remain to remind him of his thoughtlessness. What has 
been said above of the engine, is also true of the boiler and 
its appurtenances. No new boiler .should have pressure put 
upon it at once. Instead, it should be heated up slowly for 
the first day, and whether steam is wanted or not. Long 
before all the joints are made, or the engine ready for steam, 
the boiler should be set, and in working order. A slight fire 
should l)e made and the water warmed up to about blood 
heat only, and left to stand in that condition and cool off, 
and absolute pressure should proceed by very slow stages. 
Persons who set a boiler and then build a roaring fire under 



io6 

it, and get steam as soon as they can, need not be surprised 
to find a great many leaks developed ; even if the boiler does 
not actually and visibly leak, an enormous strain is need- 
lessly put upon it which cannot fail to injure it. Of all the 
forces engineers deal with, there are none more tremendous 
than expansion and contraction. 

TRIPLE EXPANSIONS. 

An interesting example of the value of triple expansion 
engines, as compared with compound, was exhibited on the 
Clyde, on the trial of the Orient liner Cuzco, which has 
recently been thoroughly renovated and furnished with new 
boilers working to a pressure of 150 pounds to the square inch, 
and with triple expansion engines of the most approved type 
The Cuzco is seventeen years old, and has hitherto been 
regarded as a 12^ knot boat. Recently she was tried on the 
measured mile for a six-hours run, when she attained a speed 
of 16 knots, and made upward of 75 revolutions per minute. 
This increase in speed was, a daily newspaper correspondent 
says, accompanied \\ith the usual economy in coal consumption, 
and the incident is remarkable on account of the success w^ith 
which the power of the new engines has developed a high 
Speed in a vessel, the model of which is comparatively 
obsolete. 

STEAM AS A CLEANSING AGENT. 

For cleaning greasy machinery nothing can be f oimd that 
is more useful than steam. A steam hose attached to the 
boiler can be made to do better w^ork in. a few minutes than 
any one is able to do in hours of close application. The 
principal advantages of steam are, that it will penetrate 
where an instrument will not enter, and where anything else 
would be ineffectual to accomplish the desired result. 
Journal boxes with oil cellars wall get filthy in time, and are 
difficult to clean in the ordinary way ; but, if they can be 
removed, or are in a favorable place, so that steam can be 
used, it is a veritable play work to rid them of any adhering 
substance. What is especially satisfactory in the use of 
steam, is that it does not add to the filth. Water and oil 
^read the foul matter, and thus make an additional amount 
Df work. 



I07 

COMPARATIVE ECONOMY OF HIGH AND 
SLOW SPEED ENGINES. 

In nearly every case where a flour mill is built, it is 
intended to be a permanent investment. The very nature of 
the milling business makes it necessary that the plant shall 
be built and operated, not for one, two or three years, but 
for a long term of years. It is the ambition of every mill 
owner, when he builds a mill, to make it the foundation of a 
permanent business, and, if he is wise, he will build such a 
mill and select such machinery as will prove economical, not 
in first cost, but iii the long run. In no part of the milling 
plant is this more important than in the power outfit of 
steam mills, and, as most of the mills now being built are 
steam mills, the comparative economy of different kinds of 
steam engines becomes an important subject for considera- 
tion. No matter whether the mill is large or small, unless 
it is so advantageously located as regards its supply of fuel 
that the cost is practically nothing, any wastefulness in the 
consumption of fuel creates a steady drain on the earning of 
the mill which will seriously affect the balance of the profit 
and loss account, and, where fuel is expensive, may result in 
transferring the balance to the wrong side of the account. 

In selecting a power plant, it is a mistake, frequently made, 
to consider the first cost of the plant as of the highest 
importance, and any saving in this direction as so much 
clear gain. Especially is this the case in flouring mills of 
small capacity, where the builder's capital is limited, and 
where the idea is to get as mifth mill for as little money as 
possible. In such case, any money borrowed from the 
power plant to put into the balance of the mill, is bor- 
rowed at a ruinously high rate of interest, and it is, more- 
over, borrowed without any chance of repayment, except 
by throwing out the cheap plant and substituting the 
higher priced and more economical one at great expense. 
In no way is the miller more often misled than by the 
claims of the builders of the high-speed automatic engines, 
where the name automatic is relied upon to cover a mul- 
titude of sins in the direction of low economy. In this 
connection, some facts from a paper by J. A. Powers are 
instructive: 

After carefully analyzing the problem and consideimg 
LiivT requirements of the load to be driven in electric 
lighting stations, which are more favorable for the high 
speed engines than is the case in flouring-mill work, Mr. 
Powers reaches the conclusion as to the different styles of 



io8 

engines m the consumption of steam, as stated by engine 
builders : 

Steam per H. P. per hour. 

High speed engines 28 to 32 lbs . 

Corliss engines, non-condensing 24 to 26 lbs. 

" " condensing 20 to 21 lbs. 

" " compound condensing 15 to 16 lbs. 

With an evaporation of eight pounds of water per 
pound of coal, the coal consumption would be as follows : 

Coal per H. P. per hour. 

High speed engine „ . 3.50 to 4 lbs. 

Corliss engines, non-condensing 3 to 3.25 lbs, 

" " condensing 2.50 to 2.62 lbs, 

" " compound condensing 1.87 to 2 lbs. 

As the interest on the first cost of the steam plant should 
properly be charged against its economy, the following 
statement of comparative first cost is given: 

High speed engine ^ $31 to $36 per H. P. 

Corliss engines, non-condensing 42 to 46 " 

" " condensing 43 to 48 " 

** ** compound condensing 52 to 57 ** 

The comparison of first cost and fuel saving is as follows : 

Coal. C 
Cost. Consumption. 

High speed engine 100 per cent. 100 per cent. 

Corliss engine, non-condensing.... 131 ** 62 '* 

'* " condensing 136 ** 56 *' 

** " compound cond'g.. 163 ** 44 ** 

If the cost of coal is taken at $3 per ton and interest is 
figured at six per cent., whiclj figures may be considered a 
fair average, the results, based on the foregoing figures, for 
a plant of 400 horse-power, will be as follows : 

Cost of Coal Saving in Coal 

per day. over High Speed. 

High speed engine $24.75 $ 

Corliss engine, non-condensing. . . 18.90 5.85 

" " condensing 15-24 9.51 

" " com' d condensing 11.64 13. 11 

Interest Loss in Interest 

per day. over High Speed. 

High speed engine $2,36 $ 

Corliss engine, non-condensing. .. . 3.08 .72 

" " condensing 3.15 .79 

" " com'd condensing. 3.75 1,39 

And the saving per day over the high speed engine is: 

Corliss engine, non-condensing $ 5. 13 

" " condensing 8.72 

" " compound condensing 11.72 

So far as the steam consumption is concerned, results in 
every-day work show that the comparison is made as favor- 



109 

able as possible for the high speed engine, for, while records 
of actual tests of Corliss engines show that the figures given 
are not understated, the average of high speed engines after 
running a short time is not nearly as low as thirty-two 
pounds per indicated horse power per hour. So far as the 
cost of the respective -plants are concerned, we should be 
inclined, especially for small plants, to put the average cost 
of the high speed plant a little lower than that, of the Corliss a 
little higher, but this change would not materially affect the 
result so far as comparative economy is concerned. 

To bring the . matter in shape to fairly apply to the 
requirements of the average lOo barrel mill, it may be assumed 
that the power required will be 50 horse power. In the 
absence of exact data as to the cost of the high speed plant, 
and to give it as favorable a showing as possible, the cost of 
the respective plants may be stated as follows : 

High speed ^. $1,500 

Corliss, non-condensing. 2,700 

'* condensing 3,200 

** compound condensing 4,300 

The economy would then be : 

Water per Coal per 

H. P. per hour. H. P. per hour. 

High speed 32 lbs. 4 lbs. 

Corliss non-condensing 26 lbs. 3.25 lbs. 

" condensing 20 lbs. 2.5 lbs. 

** compound condensing 16 lbs. 2. lbs. 

And with coal and rate of interest assumed as above, 
based on a continuous run of 280 days, 24 hours per day, the 
comparison is summarized as follows : 

Cost of 
Fuel per Year Interest. Total. 

Highspeed $2,016 $90 $2,106 

Corliss, non-condensing 1,638 162 1,800 

** condensing 1,260 192 1,452 

** comp'd condensing 1,008 258 1,266 

The ratio of saving to difference in cost between the high 
speed plant and the others, may be stated as follows : 

Between high speed and Corliss non-condensing, 25 per cent. 

** ** " condensing 38^ ** 

** ** ** comp.condens'g 30 ** 

Or, in other words, it would take four years to save the 
difference in cost using the non-condensing Corliss, a little 
over two and one-half years if condensing, and three and one- 
half years if compound condensing. In either case, the sav- 
ing would be steadily continued, long after the cost of the 
Iplant had been wiped out. 



M 



no 

THE ELECTRIC LIGHT IN BOILERS. 
Experiments have been conducted in Germany for the • 
purpose of watching the action that goes on inside a steam 
boiler when it is performing its regular work. The details 
of the apparatus were as follows: A hole was made in the^J 
upper part of the shelF, 6*, and a stuffing box was attached. ^ f | 
Through this stuffing box a thick glass tube, T, was passed, 
and the joint between this tube and the shell was made 
steam tight by suitable packing. A small incandescent 
electric lamp was then lowered into the tube as shown in the 
cut, and by means of this and a galvanic battery the entire 
interior of the boiler could be lit up. 

The sight slot was attached to the head of the boiler, as 
shown on the right of the cut. A small casting with flanges 
at both ends was first riveted to the head, and to the outer 
end -of this a glass plate, A, three-eighths of an inch thick, 
was secured by means of bolts passing through a slotted face- 
plate. Gaskets w^ere placed between the glass and the 

metal, to make the 
whole steam tight. 
The slot in the face- 
plate covering the glass, 
A, was five inches long 
and half an inch wide, 
and through this the 
observations were 
made. 

A cock, B, was fit- 
ted to the main cast- 
ing, and a long slot 
was cut through it, as 
shown. When this 
cock was opened by a 
wrench the apparatus 
was ready for use ; and 
by closing the cock the 
glass plate, A, could be relieved of the pressure upon it. 

We are not aware that any discoveries of practical 
importance have been made with this apparatus ; but the 
experiments were very interesting. It has been proposed to 
apply the same device to the cylinders of simple, compound 
and triple expansion engines, in the hope of procuring 
direct evidence concerning cylinder condensation ; but as the 
time during which this condensation t akes place is so very short, 
it is probable that the w^ater is in such a fine state of subdi- 
i^vision that it does not make the steam appre-ciably opaque. 




zm^i - - ^ 



/ / 



\ 



THE DYNAMITE CRUISER "VESUVIUS." 







A — Dynamite guns. B — Gatling guns. C — One-pounder, 
D — Three-pounder. E — 37mm r^. 

This novel vessel is in many respects similar to the Eng- 
lish torpedo cruisers, except that the torpedoes are dis- 
charged through the air instead of through the water. 

The vessel was built at Cramp's ship-yard, Philadelphia. 

Length between perpendiculars, 246 feet 3 inches ; 
length over all, 252 feet 4 inches ; breadth, 26 feet 5 inches ; 
depth, 14 feet i inch ; mean draught, 9 feet ; displacement, 
725 tons; tons per inch at load line, 10.15; area midship 
section, 177.5 square feet. 

Scantling and general construction — There is an 
ordinary bar-keel 6 inches deep and i }4 inches thick, with 
an inner vertical keel of lo-pound plating, lightened between 
frames by holes about 9 inches in diameter. This plate ex- 
tends above the floor plates, which are 10 to 15 pounds per 
square foot, and has along its upper edge double angles 
3x2^ inches of 7 pounds per foot. A vertical inner keel- 
son plate is run along on top of the floors, lapping on the 
vertical keel where it extends above the floors. This keel- 
son pfate is 18 inches deep and 15 pounds per square foot, 
with double angles along the upper edge 3x2^ inches of 7 
pounds per foot. 

The frames are spaced 21 inches, frame angles 3x2 J^ of 7 
pounds per foot, reverse angles, 2^x2^ inches of 4 pounds 
per foot. ' 

The guardboards are 15 pounds per square foot, and 
remainder of the bottom plating 10 pounds amidships, 
reduced at the ends, with a double sheer strake of 12^ 



pounds for about three-fifths the length amidships. The 
stem and stern posts are of cast steel. The upper deck 
plating is 7 pounds to the square foot, with planking of 2^ 
inches wide white pine, beams 3x2 J^ inches of 7-pound angles. 

The first longitudinal is formed of lo-pound plate, with 
double angles on the upper edge above the floor and single 
angle on the low^er edge of 3x2^ inches of 7 pounds per foot. 
The second longitudinal is formed of an angle 10x3 inches, 
with double angles on the upper edge 3x2^ inches of 7 
pounds per foot. The two side stringers on each side are 
formed of 6x3x3 inches of 14-pound Z-bars, together with 
3x2 j^ inches of 7 -pound per foot angles. 

There is a captain's saloon, pantry and stateroom aft, 
just forward of which are the wardroom and four staterooms. 

The crew are berthed forward of the fireroom. 

Armament — This vessel is armed with three pneumatic 
dynamite guns of loj^-inch caliber, to throw shells con- 
taining 200 pounds of dynamite a distance of a mile, capable 
of bemg discharged once in two minutes. Ten dynamite pro- 
jectiles are carried for each gun. The range can be varied at 
will from one mile to 200 yards by varying the amount of air 
entering from the firing reservoir. The guns are not movable 
in the ship, but are fixed at an incline so that for training the 
vessel must be turned, but as she has twin screws this is 
readily accomplished. To insure the safety of the crew 
w^hile handling the shells and loading and firing the guns a 
light protective deck is worked over the lower parts of the 
guns, protecting the loading gear, compressors, etc. 

The conning tower, raised above the spar deck and just in 
rear of the guns, is built of one-inch plates, with alight hood 
on top. The vessel has a steam steering apparatus. ^ 
• The guns are placed side by side in the forward part of 
the vessel. They are made in single sections with flange con- 
nections, their length in all being about 54 feet. The shells 
are fired by fuses igniting by impact or by fuses formed of a 
composition which ignites on being wet, so that the charge 
explodes after the shell sinks below the surface of the water. 

The shells containing the dynamite are projected by means 
of compressed air. There is a main reservoir down near the 
keel, and a firing reservoir near the breech of the guns from 
which air is let into the guns in the rear of the projectile. 
The pressure in the main reservoir is about 2,ocx) pounds. 
The vessel is capable of placing with accuracy an aerial tor- 
pedo charged with a high explosive within the range of two 
miles. ^ In addition to the three dynamite guns a powerful 



' 



113 

secondary battery is carried, consisting of two 3-pounders, 
one I -pounder two 37mm revolving cannon, and two Gat- 
Jings. 

Machinery — The motive power is furnished by two triple 
expansion engines developing about 3,200 indicated horse- 
power. There are four cylinders to each engine. The high- 
pressure cylinder is 21}^ inches in diameter, the intermediate 
31, and the two low-pressure cylinders 34 inches. There are 
four boilers in independent fire -rooms, about i()% feet long 
and 9 feet in diameter; grate surface, 200 square feet. The 
speed is over twenty knots. 

THE MODERN TORPEDO UNRELIABLE. 

Recent torpedo experiments in England have apparently 
shown that the charges heretofore used in torpedos are not 
sufficiently large. The experiments indicated that 100 
pounds of explosive cannot be relied upon in an attack on a 
large vessel, and that 150 or 200 pounds would hardly be 
sufficient to charge a really formidable torpedo. These 
experiments also seem to indicate that the locomotive 
torpedo as controlled from the shore or from a vessel is not 
by any means as reliable as its advocates claim, and that 
under many circumstances it would be extremely difficult, if 
not impossible, to send it where it is wanted. The fact is, 
that the more extended the practical experience with torpe- 
does, the more unreliable they seem to be ; and it is evi- 
dent that the high opinion that has heretofore been enter- 
tained of them as weapons for offense and defense must be 
considerably revised. 

HOW TO LIGHT A LAMP WITH A SNOWBALL. 

When a small piece of potassium, the size of half a grain 
of corn, is dropped into a tumblerful of water, some of the 
oxygen of the water leaves its hydrogen, owing to the intense 
heat which the chemical action produces, and combines with 
the metallic potassium, causing a violet, bluish flame. When 
the piece of potassium is placed on the wick of a coal oil or 
alcohol lamp the flame produced by touching the potassium 
with a bit of snow, or ice, or a drop of water, will inflame it 
Fire under water can be produced by placing a small piece of 
phosphorus in a conically-shaped glass filled with water, and 
some crystals of chlorate of potash covering the phosphorus, 
and then pouring, through -a long tunnel of a glass tube, a 
few drops of sulphuric acid down on the mixture at the bot- 



114 

torn of the glass. Tongues of flame can be seen flashing 
up through the water. The intense chemical action produces 
sufficient heat to inflame the phosphorus under the water. 
Where there is sufficient heat and oxygen fire will burn, 
whether in air or water. 

HOW BELLS ARE MADE. 

There are only five concerns in the United States engaged ] 
in the manufacture of church, school and chime bells. 

Contrary to the popular idea, the exact musical tone of a ' 
bell depends neither upon the metal nor in any change in it ' 
after being cast. If the bell should not be of the exact pitch, . 
there is no alternative but to melt it over and re-cast it until 
the proper tone is secured. Hence, it is clear that the 
greatest care must be exercised, and the most thorough skill 
displayed. 

The first operation, and the one upon which success 
depends, is the forming of the molds. They are made 
according to plans which are first prepared to demonstrate 
the weight, thickness and dimensions necessary to produce 
the required tone. The molding is done entirely by hand, 
without the use of patterns. For the inside, the shape is 
made up of loam, which is merely sand, mixed with enough 
clay to make it cohesive. With nothing but a trowel, a 
paddle and his hands, the operator molds the loam into the 
desired shape, working from the bottom toward the apex. 
The work is necessarily slow, as great care must be exer- 
cised, as any variation from the plans would inevitably ruin 
the effect, and frequent measurements are taken to see that 
there are no deviations. The surface is now covered with 
black lead. This is mixed into a thick paint or mortar, and 
applied with a brush. Each coat must be allowed to dry, 
and successive coats applied until it reaches a thickness of 
about three-quarters of an inch, or until the desired shape is 
accurately secured. The outside half of the mold is built 
up of loam in the same way, only in this case no coating of 
plumbago is used. The exterior mold fits over the inside 
mold, the space between the two determining the thickness 
of the bell. The molds being finished, they are placed in 
position in a pit in front of the furnace. At the apex, or at 
the point where the bell would be hung, an opening is made 
in the outside mold of about two inches in diameter. X 
trough then carries the molten metal directly into the moid. 
The furnace is very similar to those generally used in 
melting large quantities of brass. The melting-pot is built 



"5 

between two fire-boxes, so constructed that the heat strikes 
the sides and bottom with almost equal force, effecting quick 
results. The metal used is simply ingot copper and tin, in 
the proportion of four parts of the former to one of the lat- 
ter. The copper is first melted, and then the tin is put into 
the molten mass, soon becoming a part of it. The kettle has 
a capacity of about a ton. For a bell weighing three hun- 
dred pounds, the mold is completely filled in seven or eight 
minutes. For a bell weighing six hundred pounds, it requires 
about fifteen minutes, and so on. 

The bell having cooled sufficiently, the molds are broken, 
and it is taken out and turned over to the polisher. The 
inside, having been molded against the smooth surface of 
black lead, needs no polishing, but the outside requires at- 
tention in that respect. The operation is very simple. The 
bell is hoisted to the center of a double revolving table. 
The part the bell rests upon revolves one way,"the surround- 
ing part in an opposite direction. This latter part is so con- 
structed that it will hold a large quantity of coke. Thus, in 
revolving, the coke scours the outside of the bell, the 
result being a smooth, bright surface. 

Before polishing, however, the tone of the bell is tested, 
and it is again tested after polishing, as carefully as the string 
of a piano or the reed of an organ. If satisfactory, nothing 
remains to do but the mounting. 

An idea of the great accuracy that must be displayed in 
the plans and preparation of the molds can be seen in that 
from ten to twenty-five pounds of metal, either too much or 
too little, in bells weighing from 600 to 2,000 pounds, or a 
variation of from one-twentieth to one-twelfth of an inch in 
thickness, will affect the tone. The successful manufacture 
of chimes and peals, therefore, can only be done by those 
whose knowledge of the business is as accurate as instinct, 
and this is possessed only by those who have followed the 
business for a lifetime. 

THE DURATION OF LIGHTNING FLASHES. 

It is well known that the lightning flash, or the spark 
between the terminals of an influence machine, exists for so 
short an interval of time as to be beyond measurement by any 
ordinary means. But notwithstanding the acceptance of this 
knowledge, the peculiarities of some of the flashes photo- 
graphed have been supposed to be due to the camera, or the 
sensitive plate, being at the time in a state of vibration. To 
test this line of thought, Mr. James Wimshurst has made a 



ii6 

dark slide tor nis camera, in which is fitted a train of clock- 
work carrying a disc, upon which is an arrangement for hold- 
mg the sensitive plate. When all is complete for pihotograph- 
ing a flash the clockwork is wo and up ; the sensitive plate then 
rapidly acquires great velocity, which at the maximum reaches 
2,500 revolutions per minute, and with the plate rotating at 
this speed the spark is photographed. The photograph taken 
under these circumstances in no way indicates movement in 
the sensitive plate, for the photograph throughout its length 
is as sharp and as clear as though the plate had been at rest. 
The experiment is interesting, for it not only shows the infin- 
itely short existence of the spark, but it also shows that 
chemical change in the sensitive film takes place in an equally 
minute interval of time. 

THE HIGHEST STATIONS FOR METEOROLO- 
GICAL OBSERVATIONS. 

The highest stations in Europe for making meteoro- 
logical observations are about 10,000 and 11,000 feet above 
sea level. That on Pike's Peak is 14,000 feet ; thus 
exceeding, by more than 3,000 feet, any in Europe. But 
that is not the highest in America, for on Mount Lmcoln, in 
Colorado, there are mining works at an elevation of 14,297 
feet, and at the same point a meteorological station con- 
ducted by Harvard College. In Peru there is a station on 
the Andes 14.300 feet above the sea. 

AN IMMENSE FLAG-STONE. 

A flag-stone sidewalk is now being laid in front of a 
private residence in New York city, each stone <ff which 
measures twenty by fifteen feet and one foot thick. Their 
cost, when laid, will be $1,000 apiece. 

AN ADJUSTABLE RAILWAY CAR. 

A Swedish engineer, says a foreign exchange, lias con- 
structed a railway car, which, in a few minutes, may be 
adapted to five different gauges, the narrowest being 0.890 m. 
The invention has been pat tented in several foreign countries. 

A CANAL ACROSS ITALY. 

An Italian engineer has completed the survey of a pro- 
posed canal across Italy, from near Castro, on the Tyrrhenian 
Sea, to Fauo on the Adriatic. It will be 180 miles long if it 
is ever built, and will cost $100,000,000. 



117 

DIFFERENCES OF TIME FROM NEW YORK. 

At any Given Ti7?te in New York it is iit — 

HRS. MIN. SEC. 

Amsterdam (Holland) 5 16 later. 

Berne (Switzerland) 5 26 " 

Berlin (Prussia) 5 49 35 " 

Brussels (Belgium) 5 13 30 " 

BudaPesth (Hungary) 6 12 " 

Carlsruhe (Baden) 5 30 " 

Christiania (Norway) 5 39 " 

Cologne (Germany) 5 24 " 

Constantinople (Turkey) 6 52 " 

Copenhagen (Denmark) 5 46 " 

Dublin (Ireland) 4 30 30 " 

Frankfort (Germany) 5 30 " 

Geneva (Switzerland) 5 20 30 " 

Gothenburg (Sweden) 5 ^5 " 

Greenwich (England) 4 56 " 

Hamburg (Germany) 5 36 " 

Lisbon (Portugal) 4 19 30 " 

London (England) „ 4 55 56 " 

Madrid (Spain) 4 41 15 " 

Moscow (Russia) 7 26 " 

Munich (Bavaria) 5 42 30 " 

Naples (Italy) 5 53 " 

Paris (France) 5 05 15 " 

Prague (Austria) 5 54 " 

Rome (Italy) 5 46 " 

St. Petersburg (Russia) 6 57 ** 

Stuttgart ( Wiirtemberg) . , 5 33 " 

Stockholm (Sweden) 6 08 " 

Trieste (Austria) 5 51 " 

Venice (Italy) 5 45 30 " 

Vienna (Austria 6 01 33 " 

Warsaw (Poland) 6 20 " 

The differences are at the rate of one hour for every 
fifteen degrees of longitude, or four minutes for each degree* 

A VALUABLE PRESERVATIVE PAINT. 
Soapstone incorporated with oil, after the manner of paint, 
i-s said to be superior to any kind of a paint as a preservative. 
Soapstone is to be had in an exceedingly fine powder, mixes 
readily with prepared oils for paint, which covers well surfaces 
of iron, steel, or stone, and is an effectual remedy against 
rust. It has been known to protect some stone work, such 
-p . :n rhina, for ages past. 



TIME AT DIFFERENT PLACES, WHEN IT IS 12 

O'CLOCK AT NEW YORK CITY; ALSO, DIF- 

FERENCE IN TIME FROM NEW YORK. 

New York City 12 M. 



Places. 



Albany, N. Y 

Annapolis, Md 

Augusta, Me 

Baltimore, Md 

Bangor, Me 

Boston Mass 

Buffalo, N. Y. . . . . . 

Charleston, S. C 

Chicago, 111 

Cincinnati, O 

Cleveland, O 

Columbus, O. 

Concord, N. H 

Detroit, Mich. 

Eastport, Me 

Fall River, Mass 

Frankfort, Ky 

Halifax, N. S 

Harrisburg, Pa 

Hartford, Conn 

Key West, Fla 

Leavenworth, Kan . . 

Lexington, Ky 

Liverpool, Eng 

Louisville, Ky 

Lowell, Mass 

Memphis, Tenn 

Milwaukee, Wis. . . . . 

Montpelier, Yt 

Montreal, Que 

New Bedford, Mass. . 
New Haven, Conn. . . 
New Orleans, La. . . . 
Niagara Falls, N. Y. 

Norfolk, Va 

Omaha, Neb. . , 



HM S 



49 33 
20 52 
1 1 46 
4020 
36J18 
529 



p.m 
a.m. 
p.m 
a.m. 
p.m 

a.m. 



18 
28 

23 

lol 4 

23 '50 
2816 
II 32 
17 20 

4i|33 
48*40 

5:17 

2850 



II 14 

I2]lO 

1055 

II 

12 
12 
12 
12 
lOj 



4,2_ 

5136 

i|4S 
1218 
418 
56 
ii|39'44 
1 1 150 46 
10I32: 4 



p.r 
a.m. 
p.m 

a 

a.m. 
p.m 
a.m. 
p.m 
a.m. 
a.m. 
• « 

p.m 
a.m. 
p.m 
a.m. 
« 

p.m 



Fast. 


Slow. 


H 


M 


S 


H 


M 


s 




I 

16 

20 
II 

10 

28 
II 

41 

5 


I 

40 

46 

4 

16 
32 

33 

17 


I 


9 
10 

19 

23 
54 
41 

11 

36 

42 
II 

31 
22 


5^ 
2: 

4C 
42 

il 

12 

IC 

4C 

2C 
IC 

5^ 


4 


43 
10 

5 
I 

12 
4 


56 
44 

18 
18 


I 

I 


41 
46 

4 
55 

4 
20 

9 


3- 
3: 

i( 








[ I 


I27 


s:t 



119 
TIME AT DIFFERENT PLACES.— Continued. 



New York City 12 M. 



Places. 



HM S 



Fast. 



HM S 



Slow. 



HMS 



Oswego, N. Y 

Paris, France 

Philadelphia, Pa 

Pike's Peak, Col 

Pittsburg, Pa. 

Portland, Me 

Providence, R. I. . . . 

Quebec, Que 

Raleigh, N. C 

Richmond, Va. ..... 

Sacramento, Cal 

Salt Lake City, Utah 
San Francisco, Cal. . 

Savannah, Ga 

Springfield, Mass. . . 

St. Louis, Mo 

Syracuse, N. Y 

Toronto, Ont 

Trenton, N. J 

Washington, D. C... 



p.m 
a.m. 



p.m 



p.m 
a m. 



37 



48! 



24 
40 



12 
50 
51 
24 
47 
21 

I 

48 
33 



J-ENGTH AND NUMBER OF TACKS TO THE 
POUND. 



Title. 


Length. 


No. p. lb. 


Title. 


Length. 


No. p. lb. 


I oz. 


y% in. 


16,000 


10 oz. 


11-16 


1,600 


\y2 " 


3-16 - 


10,666 


12 '* 


^ . 


1,333 


2 " 


X " 


8,000 


14 " 


13-16 


1,143 


2K " 


5-16 - 


6,400 


16 '* 


^ 


1,000 


3 " 


Vz - 


5,333 


18 '^ 


15-16 


888 


4 " 


7-16 " 


4,000 


20 "■ 


I 


800 


6 « 


9-16 *' 


2,666 


22 '* 


11-16 


727 


8 " 


'A - 


2,000 


24 '' 


i>^ 


^^ 



Amount of horse power transmitted by single belts to pul- 
jeys running loo revolutions per minute when the diameter of 
the driving pulley is equal to the diameter of the driven pulley. 



Diamerfei' 




W 


IDTH OF Belt in 


Inches. 




of 
















Pulley. 


2 


2>^ 


3 


3K 


4 


\y2 


5 


6 


In. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P.iH. P. 


H. p. 


H. P. 


H. P. 




•44 


•54 


.65 


'l^ 


.87 


.98 


1.09 


I-3I 


6>^ 


•47 


•59 


•71 


'l^ 


.95 


1.07 


1. 19 


1.42 


7 


•51 


.64 


.76 


.89 
•95 


1. 01 


1. 14 


1.27 


1-53 


■VA 


•55 


-68 


.82 


1.09 


1.23 


1.36 


1.64 


8 


.58 


•73 


.87 


1.02 


1. 16 


^•3i 


1.45 


1.75 


8X 


.62 


•77 


•93 


1.08 


I.2| 


^•39 


1-55 


1.86 


9 


.65 


.82 


.98 


1. 15 


I-3I 


1.48 


1.64 


1.97 


9% 


^ .69 


,%(y 


1.04 


1. 21 


^•39 


1.56 


1.74 


2.0b 


lO 


•^5 


.91 


1.09 


1.27 


1.45 


1.63 


1. 81 


2.18 


II 


.8 


I. 


1.2 


1.4 


1.6 


1.8 


2. 


2.4 


12 


.87 


1.09 


131 


1-53 


1^75 


1.97 


2.18 


2.62 


13 


•95 


1.18 


1.42 


1.65 


1.89 


2.12 


2.36 


2.83 


14 


1.02 


1.27 


1.52 


1-77 


2.02 


2.27 


2.53 


3- 05 


\ 


1.09 


1.36 


1.64 


1. 91 


2.19 


2.46 


2.73 


3-29 


.b 


1.16 


1.45 


1.74 


2.03 


2.32 


2.61 


2.91 


3^4^ 


17 


1.2^ 


1^55 


1.85 


2.16 


2.47 


2.78 


3-09 


3-70 


18 


I-3I 


1.64 


1.96 


2.29 


2.62 


2.95 


3-27 


3-92 


19 


1-39 


'•P 


2.07 


2.42 


2.76 


^11 


3^45 


4.14 


20 


1.45 


1.82 


2.18 


2.55 


2.91 


3^27 


3-64 


4-36 


21 


1.52 


1.91 


2.2Q 


2.67 


3-05 


3-44 


3.82 


4.58 


22 


1.6 


2. 


2.4' 


2.8 


3-2. 


3-6 


4 


4.8 


23 


1.67 


2.09 


2.51 


2.93 


3^35 


3-75 


4.18 


5.02 


24 


3-5 


4.4 


5^2 


1- 


8.7 


10.5 


12.2 


14. 


25 


H 


4-5 


5-5 


7.3 


9.1 


10.9 


12.7 


14.5 


26 


3-8 


4-7 


5^7 


7.6 


9-5 


II-3 


13.2 


15- 1 


27 


3-9 


4.9 


5-9 


7.8 


9.8 


11.8 


13-7 


15.6 


28 


4.1 


5-1 


6.1 


8.1 


10.2 


12.2 


14-3 


16.3 


29 


4.2 


5^3 


6.3 


8.4 


10.5 


12.6 


14.8 


16.9 


30 


4.4 


5^4 


6.6 


8.7 


10.9 


13- 1 


15-3 


17.4 


31 


4.5 


5.6 


6.8 


9- 


113 


135 


15.8 


18. 


32 


4.7 


5.8 


1- 


9-3 


II. 6 


14. 


16.3 


18.6 


33 


4.8 


6. 


7^2 


9.6 


12. 


14.4 


16.8 


19.2 


34 


4.9 


6.2 


7-4 


9.9 


12.4 


14.8 


17-3 


19.8 


35 


^ 5^1 


6.4 


7.6 


10.2 


12.7 


153 


17.9 


20.4 



Amount of horse power transmitted by single belts to pul- 
leys running lOO revolutions per minute when the diameter of 
the driving wheel is equal to the diameter of the driven pulley. 



Diameti 




Width o\ 


' Belt in Inches 






of 












Pulley. ^ 


z 


^% 


3 


3J^ 


4 


4>^ 


5 


6 


In. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. P. 


H. R 


36 


5.2 


6.5 


7.8 


10.5 


13- 1 


15-7 


18.3 


20.9 


Zl 


5-4 


'^•1 


8.1 


10.8 


13-5 


16.2 


18.9 


21.5 


38 


5-5 


6.9 


^'7> 


II. 


13.8 


16.6 


19-3 


22.1 


39 


5-7 


7.1 


8.5 


II-3 


14.2 


17- 


19.9 


22.7 


40 


5.8 


7.3 


^^1 


II. 6 


14.6 


'^•5 


20.4 


23.3 


42 


6.1 


7.6 


9.2 


12.2 


'5-3 


18.2 


21.4 


24.3 


44 


6.4 


8. 


9.6 


12.8 


16. 


19.2 


22.4 


25.6 


46 


6.7 


8.4 


10. 


13-4 


16. 


20.1 " 


23-4 


26.8 


48 


7. 


8.8 


10.4 


14. 


17-4 


21. 


24.4 


28. 


50 


7.2 


9. 


10.9 


14.6 


18.2 


21.8 


25-4 


29. 


54 


7.8 


9.8 


II. 8 


15-6 


19.6 


23.6 


26.4 


31.2 


60 


8.8 


io,<8 


13-1 


17.4 


21.8 


26.2 


30.6 


34-8 


66 


9.6 


12. 


14.4 


19.2 


24. 


28.8 


33.6 


38.4 


72 


10.4 


13- 


15.6 


21. 


26.2 


31-4 


36.6 


41.8 


78 


II. 4 


14.2 


17. 


22.6 


28.4 


34. 


30.8 


45-4 


84 


12.2 


15.2 


19.4 


24.4 


30.6 


36.4 


42.8 


48.6 


26 


3.8 


4-7 


5-7 


7.6 


9-5 


II-3 


13.2 


I5-I 


27 


3-9 


4.9 


5-9 


1'^ 


9.8 


11.8 


^3.7 


15.6 


28 


4.1 


51 


6.1 


8.1 


10.2 


12.2 


14.3 


16.3 


29 


4.2 


5-3 


6.3 


8.4 


10.5 


12.6 


14.8 


16.9 


30 


4.4 


5-4 


6.6 


^'1 


10.9 


131 


153 


17.4 


31 


4.5 


5-6 


6.8 


9- 


II-3 


13-5 


15.8 


18. 


32 


4-7 


5-8 


7- 


9-3 


II. 6 


14. 


16.3 


18.6 


33 


4.8 


6. 


7.2 


9.6 


12. 


14.4 


16.8 


19.2 


34 


4.9 


6.2 


7-4 


9.9 


12.4 


14.8 


17-3 


19.8 


35 


51 


6.4 


7-^ 


10.2 


12.7 


153 


17.9 


20.4 


36 


5.2 


6.5 


7.8 


10.5 


13- 1 


15.7 


18.3 


20.9 


37 


5-4 


6.7 


8.1 


10.8 


13-5 


16.2 


18.9 


21.5 


38 


5-5 


6.9 


!-3 


II. 


13.8 


16.6 


19-3 


22.1 


39 


5-7 


71 


8.5 


II-3 


14.2 


17. 


19.9 


22.7 


40 


5-8 


7-3 


^'1 


II. 6 


14.6 


17-5 


20.4 


'^Z-l 


42 


6.1 


7.6 


9.2 


12.2 


153 


18.2 


21.4 


24-3 


44 


6.4 


8. 


9.6 


12.8 


16. 


19.2 


22.4 


25.6 



HOW TO TRUE AN EMERY WHEEL. 
An emery wheel may be trued by using a bar of rough iron, 
or copper as a turning tool. 



122 



HOW TO FIND THE DIAMETER OF HIGH AXD 

LOW PRESSURE CYLINDERS AT DIE- 

FERENT PRESSURES. 

The following is a table from actual practice giving the 
diameters of the high and low pressure cylinders at different 
boiler pressures, the piston speed being taken at 420 ft. 
minute : 



l« 





Ph . 


Boiler pres- 


Boiler pres- 


Boiler pres- 






sure 45 lbs. 


sure 80 lbs. 


isure 125 lbs. 




Diam. H.P. 


Diam. H.P. 


Diam. H.P. 


^ 


1— i 


cylinder. 


cylinder. 


cylinder. 


10 


7Xin. 


4 in. 


3^ in. 


SXi"- 


20 


10 


5X 


5 


4/2 


25 


nX 


6j^ 


5^ 


SVs 


30 


i2ys 


y/s 


6X 


5H 


40 


14X 


8X 


s''^ 


(>H 


50 


16 


9X 




7X 


100 


22X 


13 


iiX 


io>i 


150 


27/8 


16 


14 


I2J/8 



THE LARGEST STEAM BOILER IN AMERICA. 

The largest steam boiler ever constructed in America has 
been manufactured at Scranton, Pa. The boiler is 35 feet 4 
inches in length, 10 feet 6 inches wide, and 1 1 feet 6 inches 
high. It is made of steel, weighs 45 tons, and is of 1,000 
horse-power. One sheet of steel used weighed two tons. 
The metal from the " crown sheet " to . the " wagon top " is 
i^ inches in diameter, that near the valve is 3^ of an inch, 
and the other parts 9-16 of an inch in diameter. There are 
198 three-inch tubes in the boiler, a double fire box connect- 
ing with the flues, and stay bolts and rivets are used varying 
in length from six to ten inches. 

HOW TO MAKE A STRONG FLANGE JOINT. 

To make a flange joint that won't leak or bum out on 
steam pipes, mix two parts white lead to one part red lead to 
a stiff putty; spread on the flange evenly, and cut a liner of 
gauze wire — like mosquito net wire — and lay on the putty, of 
course cutting out the proper holes ; then bring the fianges 
"fair," put in the bolts and turn the nuts on evenly. For a 
permanent joint this is A i. 



123 

DENSITY OF WATER. 



Tempera- 
ture F. 


Comparative 
Volume. 

Water 32° = !. 


Comparative 

Density. 
Water 320=1. 


Weight of 
I Cubic Foot. 


32 


I. 00000 


I. 00000 


62.418 


35 


0.99993 


1.00007 


62.422 


40 


0.99989 


I.OOOII 


62.425 


^l 


0.99993 


1.00007 


62.422 


46 


I. 00000 


I. 00000 


62.418 


50 


I. 00015 


.99985 


62.409 


55 


1.00038 


.99961 


62.394 


60 


I . 00074 


.99926 


62.372 


65 


1.00119 


.99881 


62.344 


70 


I. 00160 


.99832 


62.313 


P 


I .00239 


.99771 


62.275 


80 


I . 00299 


.99702 


62.232 


85 


1.00379 


,99622 


62.182 


90 


1.00459 


.99543 


62.133 


95 


1.00554 


.99449 


62.074 


100 


1.00639 


.99365 


62.022 


105 


1.00739 


.99260 


61.960 


no 


1.00889 


.99119 


61,868 


115 


1.00989 


.99021 


61.807 


120 


1.01139 


.98874 


61.715 


125 


I. 01 239 


.98808 


61.654 


130 


I. 01390 


.98630 


61.563 


135 


I. 01539 


.98484 


61.472 


140 


I. 01 690 


.98339 


61.381 


145 


I. 01839 


.98194 


61.291 


150 


I .01989 


.98050 


61.201 


155 


I. 02 164 


,97882 


61.096 


160 


1.02340 


.97715 


60.941 


165 


1.02589 


-97477 


60.843 


170 


J . 02690 


.97380 


60 783 


175 


1.02906 


.97193 


60.665 


180 


I .03100 


.97006 


60.543 


185 


1.03300 


.96828 


60.430 


190 


1.03500 


.86632 


60.314 


195 


1.03700 


. 96440 


60. 198 


200 


1.03889 


.96256 


60.081 


205 


I. 0414 


.9602 


59-937 


210 


1.0434 


•9584 


59.822 


^12 


1.0444 


.9575 


1 59.769 



124 



CALKING STEAM BOILERS. 

No well-made boiler ought to require to be heavily calked, 
and to provide for light calking it is imperative that the 
plates of a boiler should be effectually and thoroughly 
cleaned of all fire scale before being riveted up. Good boiler 
work should be very nearly tight without calking, but it is 
difficult to attain this degree of excellence with hand work. 
Hydraulic riveting, in which the plates are forcibly pressed 
together before the rivet is closed and made to fit the hole, 
will, if carefully done, be found to give a tight boiler without 
calking. It is obvious that tightness can only be secured by 
insuring metallic contact. If all the rivets fill the holes per- 
fectly, no leakage can percolate past the rivet heads. If any 
rivet heads require calking, they should be cut out and a 
fresh rivet inserted, as a leak is a sure indication that the 
rivet does not fill the hole, and is possibly imperfectly closed 
in addition. It is also obvious that to insure a tight boiler 
the surfaces of the plates must be in metallic contact, and 
must remain so when the boiler is subjected to the working 
pressure which, with the alterations of temperature, will pro- 
duce certain inevitable changes in the form of the boiler. It 

is obviously necessary 
that the surfaces of the 
plates should be smooth 
in order to insure metal- 
lic contact, and that 
this cannot be attained 
unless the scale covers 
the plates completely, 
or is wholly detached. 
As a slight pin-hole in 
the magnetic oxide with 
which steel plates are 
coated will cause aleak- 
age, and under certain 
circumstances, set up a 
--, galvanic and corrosive 

■^ ^^' ^' action, it is advisable to 

wholly detach the scale. This is easily done with iron 
plates, but steel plates cannot be completely cleaned of mag- 
netic oxide by the usual mechanical methods. An excellent 
and effective method is that used at the Crewe Works of the 
London & Northwestern Railway (England). The plates 
are brushed over with muriatic acid diluted with water, and 
applied w^th a brush or pad made with woolen waste. This 




Fig. I. 




125 

loosens and detaches all the scale, and the plates are then 
cleaned by a solution of lime, which effectually removes any 
surplus muriatic acid. If the plates are not wanted imme- 
diately, they can be protected from rust by a coat of turpen- 
tine and oil. If these precautions be not taken, the scale or 
dirt upon the plates becomes crushed to powder by the 
squeeze of the riveter, and a close metal to metal joint is ren- 
dered impossible, and the consequent leakage must be stopped 
by calking. With clean plates much calking is not neces- 
sary, nor should it be countenanced, for, after all, calking is 
only an evidence of, and a concession to, more or less in- 
ferior, or, at least, imperfect workmanship. 

Some boiler-makers firmly believe that calking should be 
performed both internally and externally, and we may fre- 
quently hear this double calking expatiated upon as adding 
to the value of a boiler. As a matter of fact,Jiowever, in- 
ternal calking should never be resorted to. By internal calk- 
ing we mean specially to indicate the calking of edges ex- 
posed to steam or water, especially the latter, for long expe- 
rience has shown, with very little room for doubt, that internal 
calking has frequently been either a cause or an aid in the 
initiation of corrosive channeling of the plates along the line 
of the rivet seams. Though channeling is commonly met 
with along the longitudinal seams, being started, more fre- 
quently than by any other cause, by the want of perfect cir- 
cularity of the boiler, yet it is aggravated by the calking of 
the edge of the plate which borders the channeling, and the 
explanation is that an abnormal stress is set up in the plate 
upon which the calked edge is forced down, and too fre- 
quently the calking tool itself is driven so severely upon the 
plate surface as to cause an injury which develops as chan- 
neling when other conditions, such as bad water, etc., are 
present. These causes have been mainly contributory to the 
modern practice of outside calking only, and, with proper 
workmanship, this is all that should be required, but the best 
practice rejects any calking at all in the strict acceptation of 
the term, and demands that the edges of the plates shall be 
planed and "fullered;" fullering being the thickening up of 
the whole edge of the plate by means of a tool having a face 
equal to the plate thickness. With such a tool as this, it is 
impossible to wedge apart the plates forming the joint, and 
so frequently done in the manner shown (exaggerated) in 
Fig. I, when the narrow edge of the calking tool, driven per- 
haps by a heavy hammer, actually forces the plates apart and 
insures a tight joint only by the piece of damaged plate corner 
which remains driven fast into the gap. 



126 

In cuntiast to this, Fig. 2 may be taken to fairly repre- 
sent the correct action of the more correct fullering tool, the 
plate edge being simply thickened, and contact between the 
two plates rendered certain for some distance in from the 
edge. To thus thicken, or " fuller " a plate, requires con- 
siderable power, and yet, even the use of a more than usually 
heavy hammer will not cause injury, as it certainly would do 
in careless hands, if used with a narrow calking tool. All 
modern first-class boiler work in England is inviarably ful- 
lered, and, though the practice of inside calking is still fol- 
lowed by firms who " fuller, " nevertheless, outside work is 
gaining the day. A further advantage of the " fulling " tool 
may be named. If inside calking be still practiced, the 
tendency to cause grooving will be less marked than with 
the narrow tool, and where, as at times, it is absolutely 
necessary to internally calk, as may sometimes happen, the 
last is a great point in favor of the broad tool. 

The foregoing remarks are suggested by a few notes on 
calking in an engineering work, wherein calking tools are 
described as having from }i to 3-16 of thickness, and "best 
work" as being calked both inside and out. In itself, 
calking properly carried out, and lightly performed on good, 
close-riveted joints, is not necessarily bad, but too frequently 
is badly performed by careless workmen and boys, and hence 
" fullering, " which is better practice, and is also a safeguard 
against carelessness, is to be preferred to the old method. 

HOW TO THAW OUT A FROZEN STEAM-PIPE. 

A good way to thaw out a frozen-up steam pipe, is to 
take some old cloth, discarded clothes, waste, old carpet, or 
anything of that kind, and lay on the pipe to be thawed ; 
then get some good hot water and pour it on. The cloth 
will hold the heat on the pipe, and thaw it out in five min- 
utes. This holds good in any kind of a freeze, water-wheel, 
or anything else. 

NUMBER OF STEAM BOILERS IN NEW YORK. 
The total number of steam boilers in New York City is 
nearly 7,000. The volume of one pound of steam is about 
twenty-six cubic feet. A cubic inch of water makes about a 
cubic foot of dry steam. Only a small fraction of the latent 
heat of steam can be made available in performing work. 




127 

About seven-tenths of the latent heat are lost through the 
existence of natural conditions over which man can probably 
never expect to gain control. Two-tenths are lost through 
imperfections of mechanism, and about one-tenth is all that 
can be utilized, even in the best engines. So, you see, the 
daily waste is greater than the actual daily consumption. 

TO STOP FOAMING IN BOILERS. 

The accompanying sketch shows a method for stopping 
the foaming in boilers. Where a steam drum is used, a pipe 

C, the size of steam 
drum neck, is fastened in 
neck, extending 6 or 8 
inches above bottom of 
steam drum: Then an 
umbrella B, or cap, is 
fastened on top of piece 
of pipe C, to cause cur- 
rent of steam and water 
to be thrown down on 
bottom of steam drum. 
The water in steam is 
deposited on* bottom of drum, and runs down pipe A to 
boiler. Pipe A is fastened into pipe C on level with bottom 
of steam drum, and extends below surface of water in boiler. 
This arrangement has cured four boilers which foamed so 
badly that the engine would stop after being run five or ten 
minutes. 

The same principle can be used on boilers with steam 
domes, especially where the hole through shell is smaller than 
dome. 

UTILIZING SAWDUST. 

\Vhat was formerly a waste material is, in many cases, 
at the present time a valuable product. To convert a waste 
material into a salable article, there is frequently needed only 
a little inventive ingenuity with respect to packing and ship- 
ping it or adapting it to the market. This general truth has 
been exemplified by an effort that has been made in some 
portions of the State of Maine to take care of the large accu- 
mulations of sawdust about the lumber factories. ' The saw- 
dust is being pressed into convenient sizes and inclosed in 
burlaps. In this form we learn that the material can be 
shipped to market for less than one-half of the cost of ship- 
piner in bulk. We are informed, further, that the new enter- 



128 

prise ha^ received considerable encouragement, and that in 
various directions there is a demand for sawdust in this form. 
It would seem reasonable to suppose that for the future baled 
sawdust about the stables, in cities particularly, would be in 
much demand. Every one knows the advantage of keeping 
hay in bales as compared with the loft room that was neces- 
sary for hay in bulk formerly, and the same arguments apply, 
in part at least, to sawdust. The amount of sawdust that is 
available for the purpose of baling, taking all the lumber 
regions of the United States into account, is very large. The 
percentage of lumber that is turned into sawdust in cutting is 
the evidence of the large quantity of this material that exists. 
It would seem that the new industry might extend to large 
proportions. 

VALUE OF WET COAL AS A HEAT GENER- 
ATOR. 

This burning of water is a curious thing, says a writer. 
When I went to England many years ago, a perfect novice 
in matters relating to combustion of fuel, and saw the fire- 
men and engineers pouring bucketfuls of water on their coal 
heaps just before shoveling the coal on their fires, I at once 
told them that they were doing a very foolish thing, for it 
took a lot of heat to drive off the water before 
the coal would burn. But, when they told me that it 
was a matter that they had proved that they got much 
hotter fires when they wet their coal than when they put it 
on dry, I Avas completely nonplussed ; and, when with my 
"stoker," I fed the furnaces with tan bark, etc., so wet that 
the water ran out of the hoppers, I believed the firemen 
were right. 

GRAPHITE IN STEAM-FITTING. 

Few steam-fitters or engineers understand the valuable 
properties of graphite in making up joints; this valuable 
mineral cannot be overestimated in this connection. Inde- 
structible under all changes of temperature, a perfect lubri- 
cant and an anti-incrustator, any joint can be made up per- 
fectly tight with it and can be taken apart years after as easy 
as put together. Rubber or metal gaskets, when previously 
smeared with it, will last almost any length of time, and will 
leave the surface perfectly clean and bright. Few engineers 
put to sea without a good supply of this valuable miner?!, 
while it scenes to be almost overlooked on shore. 



129 

TAKE CARE OF YOUR AUTOMATIC SPRINK- 
LERS. 

Many business blocks, workshops, stores, etc., have been 
expensively fitted up with automatic sprinklers as a safeguard 
against fires, a certain temperature of heat fusing the metal, 
opening a valve and letting on a flow of water. But an in- 
spection of the perforated pipes in a majority of instances will 
reveal the fact that the apparatus has been neglected. Cob- 
webs and dust cover the pipes, the sprinklers have been per- 
mitted to corrode and unsolder, and, should a fire chance to 
occur and the friendly services of the sprinklers ever be 
required, they would be found almost useless, and for all the 
work they would perform in the line of throwing cold water 
on the devouring elements, the premises might as well have 
remained " unprotected. " _ 

HOW TO OVERCOME VIBRATION. 

How to put the smith shop in an upper story without 
having the working on the anvils jar the building, has been a 
problem that has frequently given manufacturers trouble. A 
mechanical engineer says it may be safely done by placing a 
good heavy foundation of sheet lead on the floor, and on that 
putting a good thickness of rubber belting. 

^ Another person who is interested in the problem has tried 
the experiment, with some success, of placing the block, not 
on the floor, but on the joist direct, making a cement floor up 
to the block, and over the wooden floor, reaching back beyond 
the reach of sparks. It is sometimes said th^ blacksmith 
shops never burn, but they keep right on burning in spite of 
theory, and cement floors ought to be helpful in guarding 
against fires. 

BOILER EXPLOSIONS IN GERMANY. 

In Germany, during 1887, there were thirteen boiler 
explosions, the Germans making up in destructiveness what 
they lack in numbers of these accidents. 

By the thirteen explosions, seventeen persons were killed; 
five seriously, and fifty-nine slightly injured. One of these 
explosions was, so far as known, the most destructive that 
ever occurred. A battery of twenty-two boilers, at the blast 
furnaces of Friedenshutte, Silesia, exploded, completely 
demolishing the boiler-house, setting fire to a number of 
other houses by throwing red-hot bricks, killing ten persons, 
and wounding fifty-two. 



I30 

FUEL GAS VS. NATURAL GAS. 
A year or two ago, when natural gas and its wonderful 
cheapness were attracting such wide attention, causing 
almost a revolution in some industrial interests, Messrs. 
Disston & Sons, the great saw manufacturers of Philadelphia, 
contemplated the removal of their immense plant to the nat- 
ural gas regions. ^ The undertaking, however, involved such 
immense interests that they investigated very carefully and 
thoroughly, and finally determined to abandon the idea after 
being convinced that by a new process it was possible to 
make fuel gas at their own works at such a low cost as to 
offset the advantage of natural gas. Last week the Manu- 
facturers* Record gave the facts regarding the remarkable 
success at the Disston works of this fuel gas made by the 
Loomis process. It is now demonstrated that this gas can be 
made so cheaply as to greatly reduce the cost of fuel, and its 
introduction into the South will counterbalance the only ad- 
vantage which Pittsburgh and that section has possessed over 
the South by having natural gas. Already Decatur has taken 
the lead and contracted for a $200, cx)0 plant to furnish this fuel 
gas to manufacturers at a cost not to exceed the equal of coal at 
$ito $1.50 per ton, as well as to make gas for illuminating pur- 
poses. A glass manufacturer in Baltimore, who contem- 
plates using this gas as fuel, has been offered a guarantee, 
with abundant security, of a saving of ZZVi P^^ cent, com- 
pared with the cost of his coal, provided he would give the 
guarantor all that was saved over that amount. This gas can 
be made by individual establishments for their own use, as 
well as by special plants designed to furnish it to other man- 
ufacturers for fuel, and also to make at the same time illu- 
minating gas. 

A TRENCH DIGGING MACHINE. 

A Minneapolis (Minn.) man has invented a machine for 
digging trenches, and sewer and gas mains. The apparatus 
is fifty feel long, but can be made longer. On the front of 
the machine a four-horse powxr engine runs two knives, 
which do the digging. In the rear another engine, which fur- 
nishes the power for the apparatus, carries the dirt to that part 
of the machine, and drops it into the portion of the trench 
in which the pipe meanwhile has been laid. The trench may 
be of any reasonable width. Six men attend the monster. 
It has been claimed that 1,200 yards of pipe can be laid in a 
day by this machine. 



131 

MANILLA ROPE TRANSMISSION. 
A four-strand, hard-laid manilla rope, having a core, or 
** heart-yarn," is probably the best rope for transmission pur- 
poses, although three-strand rope is generally recommended, 
says a writer in the American Miller. Of course it is im- 
portant to have the rope laid in tallow, as that greatly pro- 
longs its life. The matter of splice is also important. Sea- 
men all agree that the long splice is the best, but the expe- 
rience of rope-transmission men is almost universally in favor 
of a short splice. The length of a long splice in an inch diam- 
eter rope will be five or [six feet, while a short one is two 
and two and a'! half feet. I think this is what the sailors 
term " a short splice. " I have seen a short splice succeed 
where long ones have repeatedly failed. I have known of a 
manilla rope ^used out of doors being painted with oil, and 
then varnished. It seems to work well. Tar is certainly un- 
suitable as a dressing for transmission rope. In the first 
place, it weakens it; in thefsecond, its sticking to the pulley 
or sheave would be a detriment rather than an improvement. 
There is no difficulty about the ropes sticking on the sheave, 
if properly designed and constructed. 

SAFE WORKING PRESSURE FURNACE FLUES. 

In a report to his company, the chief engineer of the 
Engine, Boiler and Employers' Liability Insurance Company, 
purposes the following rule for the safe- working pressure for 
cylindrical furnaces in flues : Safe-working pressure 
50/2 d 



^Id I 
where 

/=thickness of plate in thirty-second of an inch, 
/=length of flue in feet. 
^=diameter in inches. 

RIVETLESS STEEL SLEEPERS. 
Mr. H. Hipkins has invented a rivetless steel sleeper for 
railroads. The lips or jaws for holding the rails in place are 
stamped out of the solid plate, and are stiffened by corruga- 
tions or brackets, which are also raised from the solid plate 
out of the hollow at the back of each jaw. A center strip 
is provided for the rail to rest upon, dispensing with all rivets 
and loose parts. These sleepers can be laid rapidly, and they 
are claimed to be especially adapted to use underground in 
mines. 



132 

WHY MEN CANNOT FLY. 

No combination of wings will enable a man to fty until 
he can work them with as much muscular power to the pound 
of weight as the bird exerts in flying. If a man had, in pro- 
portion to his weight, the muscular energy and leverage of a 
flea in his legs, he could jump a mile in three leaps ; and, if 
his arms had the driving power of a wild pigeon's wing, he 
would have no use for balloons or railways. The transpor- 
tation problem would be solved. 

The albatross can keep its wings, thirteen feet from tip to 
tip, in motion all day, while the strongest man, weighing five 
or six times as much as the albatross, would exhaust all his 
strength in keeping even an albatross* wings in motion half 
an hour. "We have in the bird," says the Engineer^ "a 
machine burning concentrated fuel in a large grate at a tre- 
mendous rate, and developing a very large power in a small 
space. 

" There is no engine in existence ; certainly no steam en- 
gine and boiler combined, which, weight for weight, gives 
out anything like the mechanical power exhibited by the alba- 
tross. Consequently, no mechanical machinery" yet devised 
can operate wings with sufficient power to sustain its own 
weight in the air, and there is none known. Keely's alleged 
discovery, or some new process of storing and exerting great 
electric power in an apparatus of light weight, might supply 
the deficiency, but science has not learned how to develop in 
inanimate machinery anything like the mighty nervous energy 
which acts in the bones, sinews and muscles of a living bird's 
wing. '* 

PROTECTION OF BOILER TUBES. 

In order to prevent the rapid burning out of the front 
end of the boiler tubes, a corrugated shield or inner cover 
for each tube has been devised by two Americans. This 
shield, which may also be made with a plain surface, is to be 
applied in the end of each tube at the point of each connec- 
tion with the fire-box of the boiler. It is removable, and 
can be easily replaced when destroyed. 



It is estimated that at least fifty per cent, of the gas now 
used in the Pittsburgh mills and factories is lost through in- 
efl^ective methods and bad management. But the supply, 
too, is running short, and already one concern that moved to 
the gas territory, expecting great things from the new f"**!, 
has announced its intention to return to its old stand. 



133 

STEAM POWER IN FRANCE. 

According to statistics issued by the French Ministry of 
PubUc Works, the number of industrial establishments em- 
ploying steam power has risen from 29,000 in 1877, to 42,600 
in 1887. A large development has taken place in the use of 
steam in agriculture; the number of engines employed 
for this purpose has risen, in the same period, from 4,800 to 
13,000. The number of locomotives rose from 6,602 to 
9,114. The number of steamships has nearly doubled since 
1877, there being now over 700 in the French mercantile ma- 
rine. 

TO TEST THE QUALITY OF WHITE LEAD. 

Pure white lead, if heated to 212° F., does_ not lose 
weight. If 68 grains are mixed with 150 minims of acetic 
acid diluted with a fluid ounce of water, the white lead will 
be entirely dissolved. If it is dissolved in nitric acid (C. P. ), 
and treated with sulphate of soda solution, no precipitate 
should be formed. 

METAL SLEEPERS. 

Metal sleepers, or a system invented by M. M. Bayenva 
and Ponsard, are being tried on the French state railways, 
and it is said that they are giving satisfaction. Denain has 
recently supplied a number of them to the Western Algerian 
Railway, and has now in course of execution an order for 
25,000 for the Dakar Company, of St. Louis, in Senegal, 

HOW TO INCREASE ENGINE SPEED WITHOUT 
CHANGING GOVERNOR. 

If it is desired to increase the engine speed, and still use 
the governor, the size of the governor pulley required may be 
found by multiplying the revolutions of engine by diameter 
of engine shaft pulley, and dividing by the desired revolu- 
tions of governor, or vice versa, 

LONG DISTANCE TELEPHONE. 

The attempt made recently to communicate by telephone 
between Marseilles and Dijon, a distance of nearly 500 miles, 
was completely successful. The experiments between Mar- 
seilles and Troyes, a distance of about 620 miles, were how- 
ever, not so fortunate; but they are to be repeated after a 
thorough overhauling of the lines. 



134 

A NON-CONDUCTING COATING FOR STEAM 
PIPES, ETC. 

A non-conducting coating for steam pipes, etc., used for 
the past ten years with perfect satisfaction by a Boulogne 
engineering firm, is described in a recent issue of the Revue 
Industrielle as being conveniently applied and cheap; while 
it can be prepared by any steam user. It consists of a mix- 
ture of wood sawdust with common starch, used in a form of 
thick paste. If the surfaces to be covered are well cleaned 
from all trace of grease, the adherance is perfect for either 
cast or wrought iron; and a thickness of twenty-five mm. will 
produce the same effect as that of the most costly non-con- 
ductors. For copper pipes, there should be used a priming 
coat or two of potter's clay, mixed thin with water and laid 
on with a brush. The sawdust is sifted to remove too large 
pieces, and mixed with very thin starch. A mixture 
of two-thirds of wheat starch with' one-third of rye 
starch is the best for this purpose. It is the common 
practice to wind string spirally round the pipes to be 
treated, keeping the spirals one centimetro apart, to 
secure adhesion for the first coat, which is about five 
m. thick. When this is set, a second and third coat are 
successfully applied; and so on until the required thick- 
ness is attained. When it is all dry, two or three coats of 
coal-tar, applied with a brush, protect it from the weather. 
It is stated that 20 frs. worth of starch will go as far in this 
way as 1,000 frs. spent in any known commercial non-con- 
ductors of heat. 

To Tin Cast Iron — Pickle the castings in oil of vitriol. 
Make a solution of zinc in spirit of salt, and immerse the 
castings in this solution. Then dip in a bath of melted 
solder or tin, and the castings will become coated with tin. 

USEFUL CEMENTS. 

A cement said to resist petroleum, is made by taking 
3parts resin, i part caustic soda to 5 of water, boiled to- 
gether, the resin being meked first, of course. This makes 
a resin soap, to which must be added half its weight of plas- 
ter. It hardens in forty minutes. Useful for uniting lamp 
tops to glass. Glycerine and litharge, mixed thoroughly, is 
said to form a cement which hardens rapidly, and will join 
iron to iron or iron to stone. Not affected by water or 
arids 

A cement for leaky roofs is made by the following articles 



135 

in the proportions named: 4 pounds resin, i pint linseed oil, 
2 ounces red lead; stir in finest white sand until of the 
proper consistency, and apply hot. It possesses elasticity, 
and is fireproof. 

Starch and chloride of zinc form a cement which hardens 
quickly, and is durable. Sometimes used for stopping blow- 
holes in castings. 

A cement for uniting metal to glass is made with 2 ounces 
thick solution of glue, i ounce linseed oil varnish. Stir and 
boil thoroughly. The pieces should be tied togeth'^r for 
three days. 

A cement of 100 parts each white sand, litharge und 
limestone, combined with 7 parts of linseed oil, makes the 
strongest mineral cement known. At first the mass is soft 
and of little coherence, but in six months' time it will, if 
pressed, become so hard as to strike fire from steeh 

A free application of soft soap to a fresh burn almost 
instantly removes the fire from the flesh. If the injury is 
very severe, as soon as the pain ceases apply linseed oil, and 
then dust over with fine flour. When this covering dries 
hard, repeat the oil and flour dressing until a good coating is 
obtained. When the latter dries, allow it to stand until it 
cracks and falls off, as it will in a day or two, and a new skin 
will be found to have formed where the skin was burned. 

A new form of electrical railway is being erected at St. 
Paul, Minn. The cars do not touch the ground, but are 
suspended from girders which form the track and at the 
same time the mains conveying the current. Speeds of from 
eight to ten miles per hour are expected. 

CELLULOID SHEATHING. 

Among the various uses of celluloid, it would appear to 
be a suitable sheathing for ships, in place of copper. A 
French company now undertakes to supply the substance for 
this at nine francs per surface meter, and per millimeter of 
thickness. In experiments by M. Butaine, plates of celluloid 
applied to various vessels in January last, were removed five 
or six months after, and found quite intact and free from 
marine vegetation, which was abundant on parts uncovered. 
The color of, the substance is indestructible ; the thickness 
may be reduced to 0.0003 dieter; and the qualities of elas- 
ticity, solidity and impermeability, resistance to chemical 
action, etc. , are all in favor of the use of celluloid. 



136 

TRANSMITTING POWER BY A VACUUM. 

The idea of producing a vacuum in a receiver or in a sys- 
tem of pipes, and utilizing this vacuum to transmit power, 
was put forth many years ago. In an article published in 
1688 Papin recommends the use of this mode of transmission. 
He mentions its advantages, particularly its simplicity and 
convenience ; he gives for different cases, the proper diameters 
of the pipes in which the vacuum is made, and recommends 
lead as the material from which to make them. The idea is 
therefore old, but it is only recently that it has been put into 
practice. There is now a central station running on this prin- 
ciple in Paris, distributing 250 h. p. by means of pipes in 
which a seventy-five per cent, vacuum is maintained. One 
year ago the company running this station had fifty custom- 
ers ; now there are 105 leases signed. 

The possibility of maintaining a vacuum in an extensive 
system of pipes has sometimes been questioned. Repeated 
experiments, however, have shown that in a line of pipes a 
third of a mile long a pressure of a quarter of an atmosphere 
can be maintained so that two gauges, one at each end of the 
pipe, stand at exactly the same point. 

In the station at Paris the exhauster is operated by a 
Corliss engine of special construction, the speed of w^hich is 
automatically controlled by a regulator operated by the 
variations in pressure in the main pipe. The branch pipes are 
of lead, and are of different diameters, according to the num- 
ber of consumers that each is to supply. Each of these branch 
pipes is provided with a cock that can be opened or closed by 
means of a wrench that is kept at the central station. The 
smaller branches that supply the individual customers are also 
of lead, and are likewise provided with cocks that can be 
opened or closed only by the employes of the company, who 
retain possession of the wrenches that open them. 

Two kinds of motors are in use, one, the rotary class, 
being used for the smaller powers; the other class, which have 
cylinders and pistons, being used only for larger powers. The 
small motors have an efficiency of about 40 per cent., while 
in the largest size the efficiency is said to be as high as 80 per 
cent. 

SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 

No one of average intelligence and information now 
believes in the possibility of human beings or the lower ani- 
mals undergoing spontaneous combustion ; and yet it is 
barely forty years since Liebig devoted a long chapter of his 



137 

celebrated " Familiar Letters on Chemistry " to exposing the 
fallacy of this idea, thus showing that at that date it was preva- 
lent. Every reader of Dickens will remember that in one of 
his most interesting stories an important episode is made to 
turn on the popular belief in spontaneous combustion, a belief 
which Dickens himself would seem to have shared. Of 
course, as Liebig points out, it requires no explanation 
to account for the connection which has often been shown 
to exist between death by burning and the too frequent indul- 
gence of ardent spirits. Spontaneous combustion, though 
not of living animals, may, however, occur in certain cases, 
and give rise to fires in buildings, etc., and it may, therefore, 
be of interest to the reader to examine shortly some of those 
possible cases and their causes. But first of all, a few words 
as to " combustion " itself, the true nature of which was 
explained by the famous French chemist Lavoisierytoward the 
end of last century. 

An act of combustion is an act of chemical combina- 
tion attended by the evolution of heat and light, and, for such 
an act, two conditions are necessary, viz. : (i) There must 
be a gas in which the given substance will burn, i. e. with 
which it will combine chemically, and (2) there must be a 
certain temperature, the degree of temperature being different 
for each different substance. Thus, to take only one common 
example, a piece of coal will remain unaltered, at the ordi- 
nary temperature of the air, for practically an unlimited 
period of time; but, if it be heated to a sufftciently high 
temperature, it will burn. i. e., the carbon of which it is com- 
posed will combine with the oxygen of the air, to form car- 
bonic acid gas; chemical combination goes on in this case 
so rapidly, comparatively speakmg, that the heat and light 
set free by it are palpable to our senses. Now, the two 
requisite conditions just mentioned sometimes occur together 
in nature, giving rise to true cases of spontaneous combustion, 
of which the following examples may be cited : 

1. T\veignis fat ims, or ''^N\\\-o'-ihQ-^N\^>,''' is the effect 
of the spontaneous ignition of a volatile compound of phos- 
phorus and hydrogen, which is generated, under certain con- 
ditions, from decomposing animal and vegetable matter. 
This compound has such an intense affinity for the oxygen of 
the air, that, the moment it comes in contact with the latter, ^ 
it ignites of itself, giving out the flash of light that has de- 
luded so many a wanderer. 

2. Spontaneous combustion also occurs not unfrcquently 
in coal ships, or in the coal bunkers of ordinary vessels. ^ Coal 
generally contains iron pyrites or " coal brasses " disscminatcil 



138 

through it, and this pyrites, which is a compound of iron and 
sulphur, has a great tendency to absorb oxygen from the air 
and to combine with it, forming sulphate of iron, or " green 
vitriol. " This absorption and combination are accompanied 
by a rise of temperature, and they sometimes go on so rapidly 
as to raise the temperature of the mass sufficiently high to 
cause the coal to catch fire. 

3. Fires in buildings are often to be traced to the presence 
of heaps of old cotton waste. Such waste is always more or 
less impregnated with oil, and, being very loose in texture, it 
exposes a large surface to the air. The result is that the oil 
rapidly absorbs and combines chemically with the oxygen of 
the air, just as the pyrites in coal does, raising the temperature 
to such a degree that a fire ensues. 

4. The " heating of corn which has been stacked before 
the sheaves have been sufficiently dried, and which sometimes 
ends in the corn staclc catching fire, is the result of chemical 
changes of the nature of fermentation. 

5. Every one must have observed what a large amount 
of heat is set free when lime is slacked — so muchj indeed, 
that fires have frequently been known to result from it. The 
reason of this is, that the lime combines with a certain pro- 
l)ortion of water, this act of combination causing much heat 
to be liberated. 

The above instances are sufficient to show that sponta- 
neous combustion in no way differs from ordinary combustion, 
excepting in that the requisite temperature is attained by 
natural causes, and not artificially, and that the old idea held 
by the superstitions of last century, that the spontaneous 
combustion of animals (which we now know to be impossi- 
ble) was caused by a peculiar kind of fire, differing from ordi- 
nary fire, and not extinguishable by water, was the result of 
ignorance. There is still one other cause of spontaneous 
combustion, often very dangerous in its effects, and which 
leads us on to the subject of explosions, which must be men- 
tioned here. One occasionally reads in the newspapers of 
explosions occurring in flour mills, sometimes from no appar- 
ent cause. These explosions are cases of rapid sponta- 
neous combustion, in which a spark from the grindstone sets 
fire to the fine flour dust with which the air of the mill is 
impregnated. 

. But what is an "explosion"? An explosion is nothing 
more nor less than a combustion which spreads with great 
rapidity throughout the whole mass of the combustible matter. 
To our senses it appears to be instantaneous, but it is not really 
so. An example will make this clear. A mixture of hydrogen 



139 

aud oxygcii, or hydrogen and air, is a highly dangerous one, 
because the instant that a Hght is introduced into it it explodes ; 
that is to say, the particles of hydrogen and oxygen in the 
immediate neighborhood of the flame are raised to the requisite 
temperature at which chemical combination can take place 
between them. "Ihey therefore do combine to form water 
vapor, and, by doing so, give out heat enough to cause com- 
bination between the particles next to them, and so on 
throughout the whole mass of the gas. This action goes on, 
as already stated, so rapidly as to be practically instantaneous. 
The terrible effects of explosions are caused, then, by the 
sudden production of immense quantities of hot gases. The 
newspapers constantly tell us of disastrous explosions resulting 
from the bringing of a light into a room in which an escape of 
gas is going on. A mixture of coal gas and air behaves 
in precisely the same manner as the mixture of hydrogen 
and oxygen, or hydrogen and air, mentioned above, with 
the exception that the products of the combustion or ex- 
plosion are different. When an escape of gas is suspected, all 
lights should be rigorously excluded, the gas turned off at the 
meter or main, and windows and doors opened, so as to get 
rid of the already-escaped gas as quickly as possible ; and only 
then, after complete ventilation has taken place, may a light 
be brought into the room with safety. It is to be hoped that 
such a technical instruction bill will soon be passed by parlia- 
ment as will render avoidable accidents of this nature less and 
less likely to occur. It is likewise a dangerous thing to blow out 
a parafiine lamp instead of turning the wick down, as, by blow- 
ing the flame downward, one is apt to ignite the mixture of 
oil, gas and air which is in the upper portion of the oil reser- 
voir, and so to produce a serious explosion. 

The explosion caused by the ignition of gunpowder or any 
other ordinary explosive, is explicable in the same way, but 
can only be touched upon in this article. Gunpowder is a 
most intimate mixture of charcoal, sulphur and nitre (potassic 
nitre), the last named substance being a compound containing 
a very large percentage of oxygen, which can be liberated on 
heating it. On applying a light to gunpowder, we raise the 
temperature sufficiently to allow of the carbon and sulphur 
burning in the oxygen liberated from the nitre; and, since the 
three substances are so intimately mixed together, this com- 
bustion proceeds with explosive rapidity, and produces a rela- 
tively enormous quantity of hot gas. 

Steel, when hardened, decreases in specific gravity, con- 
tracts in length and increases in diameter. 



RULES FOR THE FIREMAN. 

In the care and management of the steam boiler the 
first thing required is an unceasing watchfulness — watch- 
care is the very word which describes it. The accidents 
arising from neglect or incompetency in care of the engine 
are few and unimportant compared to those which come 
from negligence in attending to the boiler. 

Hence the fireman needs to be a man possessed of some 
of the highest qualities of manhood. The fact that many of 
the best steam engineers in the country have begun their 
careers by handling the shovel is evidence that good men 
are required and employed in this capacity, and that they 
are rewarded for their faithfulness by advancement. 

An intemperate, reckless or indifferent man should never 
be given this place of trust. The sooner a man is dismissed 
who is either of these the better, both for himself and his 
employers, to say nothing of the innocent and unsuspecting 
public. 

An employer should know something of the character 
and habits of the man who does the firing. A daily visit, 
and, at irregular times, with an eye to things in the boiler- 
room^ as well as the engine-room, will keep him posted, to 
his great advantage. This regular inspection is most wel- 
come to faithful and careful men, and is a great inspiration 
to good service. A steam-user should visit his steam depart- 
ment as regularly as he does his office, although he may not 
spend as much time there. The failure of scores of other- 
wise flourishing establishments r due to the waste and 
recklessness in the use of fuel under the boilers, or the 
heavy losses incurred by repairs and explosions — by which 
the whole business is stopped while the expenses continue 
undiminished. 

A feeling of conscientious responsibility should be the 
uppermost thing upon the mind of a fireman when on duty. 
He should consider and know how to figure the total tons of 
pressure upon the plates of his boiler, and have constantly in 
mind the importance of unceasing vigilance. 

To know how to be a good fireman cannot be taught by 
a book. The knowledge comes by experience and by instruc- 
tion of engineers who have themselves been good firemen, 
but the following are some of the hints and rules which may 
be of advantage to the new beginner. % 

^- First — The fireman should be a sober and temperate 
person. Frivolous or reckless conduct about a steam-boiler 
is entirely out of place, and should not be permitted. There 



141 

is too much danger and too much cost — not to call it 
waste — of fuel to allow any indifference or recklessness in 
the man upon whom so many depend. 

Second — The fireman should be punctual in beginning 
his work. A loss of five minutes in starting into vigorous 
activity the men and machines of an establishment is some- 
times caused by inattention of the fireman, and the blame 
which is showered upon him is a stern reminder that he is 
held accountable for the loss. 

Third — A habit of neatness is an almost necessary qual- 
ity, and which pays better for the cost of investment than 
any other. 

Fourth — The tools should be kept in their places, and 
in good order. 

Fifth — The boiler and all its attachments should be kept 
in the very tidiest and attractive condition possible. 

Sixth- — The fireman, notwithstanding its apparent diffi- 
culty, should keep himself — as said once — "respectable 
about his work." Scattered coal and ashes and dripping oil 
should be constantly cleaned up, and every effort made to 
make the boiler-room an attractive and cheerful place. 

•* Seventh — The fireman needs to know all the details of 
his work, and to do with exactness every duty imposed upon 
him. He needs to be cool and brave in the presence of 
unexpected conditions, such as sudden leaks, breakages of 
the glass gauges and sudden stoppages of the engine with a 
heavy head of steam on. 

Eighth — He should have an idea of the importance of his 
work, and keep in mind to learn to do everything that may 
fit him in time for an advanced position. 

TABLE OF SAVINGS. 

One dollar per day saved in cost of fuel amounts, with 
interest, to the following : 



Years. 



I.. 

5.. 
10. 

15. 
20. 



4 Per Ct. 6 Per Cent 8 Per Cent 



$ 324 48$ 330 72 



1,757 50 
3,895 76 
6,497 24 
9,^62 39 



1,864 20 

4,359 H 

7,697 82 

12,165 72 



5 336 96 
1,976 80 
4,881 40 
9,149 i~ 

15,419 94 



10 Per Cent 



$ 343 20 
2,095 26 

5,469 73 
10,904 30 
^9,65678 



These tables are carefully made up. 
days' work in a year. 



They represent 312 



142 

HORSE POWER — NOMINAL, INDICATED AND 
EFFECTIVE, WITH RULES FOR DETERMIN- 
ING THE HORSE POWER OF AN ENGINE. 

Engineers and others who never carefully considered 
the matter, often use the three terms above as synonymous. 
While the terms are far from having a like meaning, still we 
often hear the nominal horse power of a steam engine spoken 
of when the person using the expression really means the 
indicated powei. To show the distinctive difference between 
the meanings of the words nominal, indicated and effective, 
as applied to the term horse power, is our aim. 

A horse power is merely an expression for a certain 
amount of work, and involves three elements — force, space 
and time. If the force be expressed in pounds and the space 
passed through in feet, then we have a solution of, and 
meaning for, the term foot-pound; from which it will be 
seen that a foot-pound is a resistance equal to one pound 
moved through a vertical distance of one foot. The work 
done in lifting thirty pounds through a height of fifty feet is 
fifteen hundred foot-pounds. Now, if the foot-pounds 
required to produce a certain amount of work involve a 
specified amount of time during which the work is performed, 
and if this number of foot-pounds is divided by the equiva- 
lent number representing one horse power (which number 
will depend upon the time), then the resulting number will 
be the horse power developed. 

For example, suppose the I,5CX) foot-pounds just spoken 
of to have acted in one second. To find the horse power 
divide by 550, and the result will be the horse power. 

A horse power is 33,000 foot-pounds per minute; or, in 
other words, 33,000 pounds lifted one foot in one minute, or 
one pound lifted 33,000 feet in one minute, or 550 pounds 
lifted one foot in one second, etc. 

The capacity for work of a steam engine is expressed in 
the number of horse powers it is capable of developing. 

Nominal horse power is an expression which is gradually 
going out of use, and is merely a conventional mode of 
describing the dimensions of a steam engine for the con- 
venience of makers and purchasers of engines. The mode 
of computing the so-called nominal horse power was estab- 
lished by the practice of some of the early English manu- 
facturers, and is as follows : 

Assume the velocity of the piston to be 128 feet per 

minute multiplied by the cube root of length of stroke in feet. 

^Assume the mean effective pressure to be seven pounds 



143 

per square inch. From these fictitious data and the area of 
the piston compute the horse power ; that is, nominal hors^ 
power=7 X 128 X^ V stroke in feet X area of piston in 
square inches-f- 33,000. 

Indicated horse power is the true measure of the work 
done within the cyHnder of a steam engine, and is based upon 
no assumptions, but is actually calculated. The data neces- 
siry are : The diameter of the cylinder in inches, length in 
feet, the mean effective pressure and number of revolutions 
per minute. As we have before stated, or implied, work is 
force acting through space, and a horse power is the amount 
of work in a specified time. In a steam engine the force 
which acts is the product of the area of the piston in square 
inches multiplied by the mean effective pressure ; the space 
is twice the stroke in feet, or one complete revolution, mul- 
tiplied by the number of revolutions per minute. 

Therefore, indicated horse power equals the area of the 
piston, multiplied by the mean effective pressure, multiplied 
by the piston speed in feet per minute divided by 33,000. 

Effective horse power is the amount of work which an 
engine is capable of performing, and is the difference be- 
tween the indicated horse power and horse power required 
to drive the engine when it is running unloaded. 

Engine rating, guarantees, etc., are usually based upon 
the indicated horse power, owing to the ease and accuracy 
with which it can be determined, and as a means of com- 
parison. 

Nominal horse power is computed from, fictitious data. 

Indicated horse power is computed from actual data, 
which is arrived at by means of what is known as the steam 
engine indicator. 

Effective horse power is computed from actual data, 
either by means of the indicator, brake or dynamometer. 

THE CARE OF MACHINERY. 

The money spent in keeping machinery clean and in 
order is by no means wasted. The better the machinery, 
the greater the necessity for proper supervision. The first 
knock in an engine, the smallest leak in a boiler, the slight- 
est variation from truth in a mill spindle, the wearing down 
of roller bearings, heating of journals, should be rectified 
immediately. The smooth and even working of machinery 
has a great deal to do with the cost of driving, while avoid- 
ance of the risk of breakage saves a large sum that would 
otherwise be spent in 1 epairs. 



144 
FOAMING IN BOILERS. 

The causes are dirty water; trying to evaporate more 
water than the size and construction of the boiler is intended 
for; taking the steam too low down; insufficient steam 
room; imperfect construction of boiler, and too small a 
steam pipe. 

Take a kettle of dirty water and place it on a fire and 
allow it to boil and watch it foam, and it will be the same in 
a boiler. 

Too little attention is paid to boilers with regard to 
their evaporating power. Where the boiler is large enough 
for the water to circulate, and there is surface enough to 
give oft the steam, foaming never occurs. As the particles 
of steam have to escape to the surface of the water in the 
boiler, unless that is in proportion to the amount of steam 
to be generated, it will be delivered with such violence that 
the water will be mixed with it and cause what is called 
foaming. 

A high pressure insures tranquillity at the surface, and, 
the steam itself being more dense, it comes away in a more 
compact form, and the ebullition at the surface is no greater 
than at a lower pressure. When a boiler foams, we close 
the throttle to check the flow, and that keeps up the pres- 
sure and lessens the sudden delivery. 

Too many flues in a boiler obstruct the passage of the 
steam from the lower part of the boiler on its way to the 
surface; this is a fault in construction, but nearly all foaming 
arises from dirty water, or from trying to evaporate too 
much water without heating surface or steam room enough. 
Usually, when first put in, a boiler and engine are large 
enough, but, as business increases, more machinery is added 
until the power required is greater than can be furnished by 
the engine, more pressure has to be carried, and the number 
of revolutions increased; consequently the evaporating 
power of the boiler is forced beyond its ability, the steam 
being drawn off so rapidly that a large portion of water is 
drawn with it — so much that it would astonish any engineer 
if he had a testing apparatus attached to the steam pipe. 

For the remedy of foul water there are numerous con- 
trivances to prevent it from entering the boiler, which is a 
far better way than trying to extract the sediment after it is 
there — though there are many ingenious methods for doing 
that also. * Faulty construction, or lack of capacity, the 
engineer cannot help, but he soon learns how to run the 
boiler to get the best possible results from it. 



145 

Every intelligent engineer has observed that his engine 
has an individuality not possessed by any other he ever ran, 
and nothing but personal acquaintance can get the best work 
out of it; so it is with the boiler. 

The steam pipe may be carried through the flange six 
inches into the dome, which would prevent the water from 
entering the pipes by following the sides of the dome as it 
does. 

For violent ebullition a plate hung over the hole where 
the steam enters the dome from the boiler is a good thing, 
and prevents a rush of water by breaking it when the throttle 
is opened suddenly. 

Clean water, plenty of surface, plenty of steam room, 
large steam pipes, boilers large enough to generate steam 
without forcing the fires, are all that is required to prevent 
foaming. A surface blow-off is a grand thing, and helps a 
foaming boiler, and would be a good thing ^n every boiler, 
as you can then skim it as you would an open kettle. 

HAND-HOLE PLATES. 

They should be placed in such a position as to be accessi- 
ble and at or near all those parts of the boiler where scale or 
sediment is liable to accumulate. In the locomotive station- 
ary boiler there should be one in each outside corner of the 
fire box and above the bottom ring, and one in each head 
under the tubes. In the upright tubular there should be at 
least two hand -hole plates above the ring, and one over the 
furnace door, on a line with the lower tube sheet, as in the 
locomotive boiler. The horizontal boiler should have one 
in each head under the tubes, and the rule generally observed 
is, that, whenever sediment is deposited, then there should be 
a hand-hole to get at it for a regular cleaning out. 

These plates should be removed once a month, or oftener 
if necessary, to keep them clean, and are never considered 
an article of ornament, but of primary importance. 

BOILING. 

Let it be remembered, that the boiling spoken of so often 
is really caused by the formation of the steam particles, and 
that, without the boiling, there can be but a very slight quan- 
tity of steam produced. 

While pure water boils at 212°, if it is saturated with 
common salt, it boils only on attaining 224^, alum boils at 
220°, sal ammoniac at 236°, acetate of soda at 256°, pure 
nitric acid boils at 248°, and pure sulphuric acid at 620°. 



146 
INCRUSTATION OF STEAM BOILERS. 

One of the greatest difficulties to be contended against in 
steam engineering is the incrustation on the boiler walls, aris- 
ing from impure water. This crust is a poor conductor of heat, 
and causes increased fuel consumption, as well as the oxidiz- 
ing or " burning " of the plates, owing to their increased tem- 
perature. A plate of iron 37^ inches thick conducts heat as 
well as a " crust " of one inch.^ A boiler bearing scale only 
I -16 inch thick requires 15 per cent, more fuel, with % inch 
60 per cent, more, j^ inch 150 percent, more. If the plates 
be clean, 90 pounds of steam require a plate temperature of 
only 325^ F. ; that is, about 5° above the steam tempera- 
ture. But if there be a ^ inch scale or crust, the plate 
must be heated to about 700°, or nearly *• low red " heat. 
Now, about 600^ iron soon gets granular and brittle; hence 
such a scale is dangerous in its results. Crust also retards 
the circulation of the water. Two very common ingredi- 
ents in boiler scale are carbonate of lime and sulphate of 
lime, or gypsum. The moderate use of soda ash (say one 
part in 5,000 of water) holds this deposit in check, by pro- 
ducing from the principal ingredients a neutral carbonate of 
lime, which will not adhere to the plates, when thus rapidly 
formed. Soda ash, if used in excess, boils up and passes 
into the cylinders and pumps, clogging up valves and pistons 
by combining with the lubricants. If the gauge-glasses 
become muddy, too much soda water is used. It is much 
better to suppl)^ the boilers with pure water that can deposit 
no scale, this being done by means of filters and heaters, or 
by surface-condensers, and being especially advisable with 
sectional and water tube boilers. 

SUPERHEATED STEAM. 

Superheated steam is made by drawing steam from the 
boiler and heating it after it has ceased to be in contact with 
the water in the boiler. The apparatus by which the extra 
heat is imparted is called a super-heater. The steam is con- 
ducted through the pipes, and hot air and gases of combus- 
tion are passed around the outside of them, thus raising the 
temperature and forming a more |)erfect gas. 

STEAM GAUGES. 

Steam gauges indicate the pressure of steam above the 
atmosphere, the total pressure being measured from a per- 
fect vacuum, which will add 14 7-10 pounds on the average 
to the pressure shown on the steam gauge. 



147 

IMPORTANT TO THOSE OPERATING STEAM 

BOILERS. 

In view of the numerous boiler explosions that have 
recently occurred, we submit to them the following perti- 
nent questions asked by the American Machinist^ which 
should command the careful consideration of every steam 
user in the land: 

How long since you were inside your boiler? 

Were any of the braces slack? 

Were any of the pins out of the braces? 

Did all the braces ring alike? 

Did not some of them sound like a fiddle-string? 

Did you notice any scale on flues or crown sheet? 

If you did, when do you intend to remove it? 

Have you noticed any evidence of bulging in the fire-box 
plates? _ 

Do you know of any leaky socket bolts? 

Are any of the flange joints leaking? 

Will your safety valve blow off itself, or does it stick a 
little sometimes? 

Are there any globe valves between the safety valve and 
the boiler? They should be taken out at once, if there are. 

Are there any defective plates anywhere about your 
boiler ? 

Is the boiler so set that you can inspect every part of it 
when necessary? 

If not, how can you tell in what condition the plates are? 

Are not some of the lower courses of tubes or flues in 
your boiler choked with soot or ashes? 

Do you absolutely know, of your own knowledge, that 
your boiler is in safe and economical working order, or do 
you merely suppose it is? 

HOW TO PREVENT ACCIDENTS TO BOILERS. 

I St. Carry regular steam pressure. 

2d. Start the engine slowly so as not to make a violent 
change in the condition of the water and steam, and, when 
consistent, stop the engine gradually. 

3d. Carry sufficient water in the boiler. 

4th. Do not exceed the pressure in pounds per square 
inch allowed to be carried. 

5th. See that every appliance of the boiler, feed pipes 
and safety-valve, fusible plugs, etc., are in complete working 
order. 



148 

PRINCIPLES ON WHICH BOILERS AND THEIR 
FURNACES SHOULD BE CONSTRUCTED. 

Hitherto, those who have made boiler -making a sepa- 
rate branch of manufacture, have given too much attention 
to mere relative proportions. One class place reliance on 
enlarged grate surface, another on large absorbing surfaces, 
while a third demand, as the grand panacea, "boiler-room 
enough," without, however, explaining what that means. 
Among modern treatises on boilers, this principle of room 
enough seems to have absorbed all other considerations, and 
the requisites, in general terms, are thus summed up : 

1. Sufficient amount of internal heating surface. 

2. Sufficient roomy surface. 

3. Sufficient air-space between the bars. 

4. Sufficient area in the tubes or flues ; and 

5. Sufficiently large fire-bar surface. 

In simpler terms, these amount to the truism — give suf- 
ficient size to all the parts, and thus avoid being deficient 
in any. 

With reference to the proportions of the several parts of 
a furnace, there are two points requiring attention ; fiist, 
the superficial area of the grate for retaining the solid fuel 
or coke ; and, second, the sectional area of the chamber 
above the fuel for receiving the gaseous portion of the coal. 

As to the area of the grate-bars^ seeing that it is a 
solid body that is to be laid on them, requiring no more 
space than it actually covers at a given depth, it is alone 
important that it be not too large. On the other hand, as 
to the area of the cha77tber above the coal, seeing that it is 
to be occupied by a gaseous body, requiring room for its 
rapidly enlarging volume, it is important that it be not too 
small. 

As to the best proportion of the grate, this will be the 
easiest of adjustment, as a little observation will soon enable 
the engineer to determine the extent to which he may 
increase or diminish the length of the furnace. In this 
respect the great desideratum consists in confining that 
length within such limits that it shall, at all times, 
be well and uniformly covered. This is the absolute 
condition and sine qua non of economy and efficiency ; 
yet it is the very condition which, in practice, is the 
most neglected. Indeed, the failure and uncertainty which 
has attended many anxiously conducted experiments has most 
frequently arisen from the neglect of this one condition. 

If the grate-bars be not equally and well covered, the 



149 

air "will enter in irregular and rapid streams or masses, 
through the uncovered parts, and at the very time when it 
should be there most restricted. Such a state of things at 
once bids defiance to all regulation or control. Now, on the 
control of the supply of air depends all that human skill can 
do in effecting perfect combustion and economy ; and, until 
the supply of fuel and the quantity on the bars be regulated, 
it will be impossible to control the admission of the air. 

Having spoken of the grate-bar surface, and what is 
placed on it, we have next to consider the chamber 
partof the furnace, and what is formed therein. In marine 
and cylindrical land boilers, this chamber is invariably made 
too shallow and too restricted. 

The proportions allowed are indeed so limited as to give 
it rather the character of a large tube, whose only function 
should be, the allowing the combustible gases to pass through 
it, rather than that of a chamber, in whiclxa series of consecu- 
tive chemical processes were to be conducted. Such 
furnaces by their diminished areas, have also this injurious 
tendency, — that they increase the already too great rapidity 
of the current through them. 

The constructing the furnace chamber so shallow and 
with such inadequate capacity, appears to have arisen from 
the idea, that the nearer the l0)dy to be heated w^as brought 
to the source of heat, the greater would be the quantity 
received. This is no doubt true when we present a body to 
be heated in front of a fire. When, however, the approach 
of the colder body will have the direct effect of interfering 
with the processes of nature (as in gaseous combustion), it 
must manifestly be injurious. Absolute contact with flame 
should be avoided where the object is to obtain all the heat 
which would be produced by the combustion of the entire 
constituents of the fuel. 

So much, however, has the supposed value of near ap- 
proach, and even impact, prevailed, that we find the space 
behind the bridge, frequently made but a few inches deep, 
and bearing the orthodox title of the flame-bed. Sounder 
views have, however, shown that it should be made capa- 
cious, and the impact of the flame avoided. 

As a general view, deduced from practice, it may be 
stated that the depth between the top of the bars and the 
crown of the furnace should not be less than two feet six 
inches where the grate is but four feet long ; increasing in 
the same ratio where the length is greater ; and secondly, 
that the depth below the bars should not be less, although 
depth there is not so essential either practically or chemically. 



ISO 





PROPERTIES 


OF SATURATED 


STEAM 




Pressure. 




Volume. 




Total heat 














required 






Tempera- 






Latent 


to generate 






ture in 






Heat in 


I lb. of 


Steam 




Fahrenheit 


Com- 


Cubic Feet 


Fahren- 


Steam from 


Total 


Degrees 


pared 

with 

Water. 


of Steam 
from I lb. 
of Water. 


heit 


Water at 32 


Gauge . 






Degrees. 


deg. under 
constant 














pressure. 














In Heat 
Units. 


o 


15 


212.0 


1642 


26.36 


965.2 


1146.1 


5 


20 


228.0 


1229 


19.72 


952.8 


1150.9 


lo 


25 


240.1 


996 


15-99 


945.3 


1154-6 


^5 


30 


250.4 


838 


13-46 


937-9 


1157-8 


20 


35 


259.3 


726 


11.65 


931.6 


1160.5 


25 


40 


267.3 


640 


10.27 


926.0 


1162.9 


30 


45 


274-4 


572 


9.18 


920.9 


1165.1 


35 


50 


281.0 


518 


8.31 


916.3 


1167. I 


40 


55 


287.1 


474 


7.61 


912.0 


1169.0 


45 


60 


292.7 


437 


7.01 


908.0 


1170.7 


50 


65 


298.0 


405 


6.49 


904.2 


1172.3 


55 


70 


302.9 


378 


6.07 


900.8 


1173.8 


60 


75 


307-5 


353 


5-68 


897.5 


1175.2 


65 


80 


312.0 


333 


5 35 


894-3 


1176.5 


70 


85 


316.1 


llf 


5-05 


891.4 


1177.9 


75 


90 


320.2 


4-79 


888.5 


1179. I 


80 


95 


324-1 


283 


4-55 


8858 


1180.3 


85 


100 


327.9 


270 


4-33 


^^3-^ 


1181.4 


90 


105 


331-3 


257 


4.14 


880.7 


T182.4 


95 


no 


334.6 


247 


3-97 


878.3 


1183.5 


100 


115 


338.0 


237 


3.80 


875.9 


1184.5 


no 


125 


344-2 


219 


3-51 


871.5 


1186.4 


120 


135 


350.1 


203 


3.27 


867.4 


T188.2 


130 


145 


355-6 


190 


3.06 


863.5 


1189.9 


140 


155 


361.0 


179 


2.87 


859-7 


1191.5 


150 


165 


366.0 


169 


2.71 


856.2 


1192.9 


160 


175 


370.8 


159 


2.56 


852.9 


1194.4 


170 


185 


375-3 


151 


2.43 


849.6 


1195-8 


180 


195 


379.7 


144 i 


2.31 


846.5 


1197.2 



This table gives the value of all properties of saturated 
steam required in calculations connected with steam boilers. 

SODA ASH IN BOILERS. 
An English boiler inspection company recommends that 
soda ash be used to prevent scale, instead of soda crystals; 
and that it be pumped in regularly and continuously in solu- 
tion, with the feed, instead of spasmodically dumped in solid 
through the manhole. Tungstate of soda, instead of either 
soda ash or soda crystal, has been recommended strongly by 
some high authorities in lieu of the above. 



STEAM COAL. 

Steam coal, being, as everybody knows, unquestionably 
the most important and largest expense in the manufacture 
of steam, is deserving a most careful investigation by engi- 
neers and owners, who, unlike chemists and college pro- 
fessors, consider the subject wholly in a practical way, as 
relating to the coal bills of their establishments. 

Useful knowledge of every-day economy of coal is seldom 
gained by " tests " conducted by experts, for several reasons so 
plain that they will not require explanation. 1st. The cost of 
the fuel used in tests, whatever may be stated, is too high, aver- 
age or " every-day " coal not being used. The experiments 
are made with picked men and picked fuel, for brief periods, 
with everything at its best, and the results attained, if looked 
for in the ordinary run of business, will be disappointment 
ill the results of the wholesale order. 2d^ Men, working as 
firemen, twelve or fourteen hours per day in the hot furnace 
rooms, cannot be expected, with the ordinary appliances, to 
watch where every lump of coal falls when feeding the fur- 
naces, nor to clean the grates any oftener than they are com- 
pelled to do. 3d. Moreover, too many employers favor the 
low wages plan, and, for the apparent saving of a few dol- 
lars per month, waste many times the amount in the^'r fur- 
nace doors, and render their establishments most disagree- 
able to their neighbors, by a free distribution of unconsumed 
carbon, or what is commonly called soot^ and of which most 
people have no appreciation. 4. Little or no encourage- 
ment is given for careful or economical firing, as a rule. 
The fireman who oftentimes wastes as much as his entire 
wages, secures the same pay as the man working alongside 
of him who saves it all. It may be remarked that this is 
"not business," but many are the concerns who run their 
steam plants upon this system. Careful handling of coal in 
firing pays better than any other thing about a steam plant, 
and it is the wisest economy to secure good and careful men 
to do it. 

As is well understood, the conditions or circumstances 
attending the combustion of coal for steam purposes, embra- 
ces a wide range. A very few establishments work under 
conditions that admit of a high attainment of economy by 
having a fixed performance of duty, and their plants wel^ 
proportioned to the regular work, but by far the large- 
number having a fluctuating demand for steam, and in thu 
respect are largely at a disadvantage. * Many furnaces arc 
badly constructed, others suffer from an insufficiency o{ 



152 

draft, and in many cases there seems to be no end of compli- 
cations detrimental to best results. 

These practical difficulties and uncertainties, which are well 
known to every experienced engineer, render any investiga- 
tion worthy of the name, slow and laborious. It has taken 
considerable time and research to arrive at the conclusion, 
Ithough differing from the preponderance of hearsay 
IJQr guess-work evidence, that now, at least, " the highest 
^'(priced coal is not the cheapest for steam production^'''* 
:and that, in fact, the reverse is undoubtedly true, especially 
in the Western country. #Late improvements in the con- 
struction of grate bars have undoubtedly added largely to 
the value of Western soft coals. The great difficulty, in 
former times, of ridding the furnaces of the incombustible 
part of these very valuable coals, has now been removed by 
improvements, and there is no doubt but what a large num- 
ber of extensive establishments in the West are now, and for 
5ome time past have been, obtaining the same duty from the 
[llinois bituminous coals that they in former years obtained 
Tom the high-priced Eastern coals. 

BLOWING OFF UNDER PRESSURE. 

A boiler can be seriously impaired by blowing it do\^Ti 
mder a high pressure, and with hot brick work. The heat 
rom the latter will granulate the iron and reduce its tensile 
trength. A boiler should not be blown right down under 
. higher pressure than twenty pounds, and not less than four 
LOurs after the fire has been drawn. 

When a boiler is exposed to cold air, especially in the 
winter, it is advisable that the damper be closed and the 
oors thrown open, or vice-versa. If both are left open, 
he strong draught of cold air will cool off the flues faster 
lian the shell; which abuse, if kept up, would reduce the 
mgth of the life of the boiler. 

THE TOTAL PRESSURE. 

A boiler eighteen feet in length by five feet in diameter, 
dth forty-four inch tubes, under a head of eighty pounds of 
:eam, has a pressure of nearly 113 tons on each head, 1,625 
)ns on the shell and 4,333 tons on the tubes, making a total 
f 6,184 tons on the whole of the exposed surfaces. % 

This calculation is made by finding the total square inches 
nder pressure, and multiplying the totals by the pressure, in 
lis case, 80 pounds to the square inch. 



153 

Table Showing Safe Working Steam Pressure for Iron 
Boilers of different sizes^ using a Factor of Safety of Six. 






36 
38 
40 
42 
44 
46 

48 
50 
52 
54 
60 
66 
72 



C o 






ft 

16 

I 



To 
3/^ 



14 

7. 
16 



Longitudinal Seams, 
Single Riveted. 



Tensil Strength of Iron 



45,ooo 


50,000 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Press- 


Press- 


ure. 


ure. 


LBS, 


LBS. 


104 


116 


130 


145 


99 


IIO 


123 


137 


94 


104 


117 


130 


89 


99 


112 


124 


85 


95 


107 


118 


82 


91 


102 


113 


78 


^1 


9^ 


109 


118 


131 


75 


^l 


94 


104 


112 


125 


72 


80 


90 


100 


108 


120 


87 


96 


104 


116 


121 


135 


78 


87 


94 


104 


109 


121 


85 


95 


99 


III 


112 


117 


78 


87 


91 


102 


102 


\ 117 



55,000 

Lbs. 

Press- 



LBS. 

127 

159 
121 

151 
115 

H3 
109 
136 
104 
130 

lOO 

125 

96 

120 

144 
92 

115 

138 

88 
no 
132 
106 

127 

148 

95 
115 
134 
104 
121 
138 

96 
112 
128 



Longitudinal Seams, 
Double Riveted. 



Tensil Strength of Iron. 



45,000 


50,000 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Press- 


Press- 


ure. 


ure. 


LBS. 


LBS. 


125 


139 


156 


174 


119 


132 


148 


164 


^113 


125 


140 


156 


107 


119 


134 


149 


102 


114 


128 


142 


98 


109 


122 


136 


94 


104 


118 


131 


142 


157 


90 


100 


113 


125 


134 


150 


86 


96 


108 


120 


130 


144 


lOI 


112 


120 


134 


140 


156 


94 


104 


113 


125 


131 


145 


102 


114 


120 


133 


137 


152 


94 


104 


no 


122 


125 


140 



154 

STEAM HEATING. 

The advantages of steam heating are set forth by Profl 
W. P. Trowbridge, in the North American Rnnrvo, as 
-lows : 

1. The almost absolute freedom from risk of fire when 
e b : iler is outside of the walls of the building to be heated, 
i :he comparative immunity under all circumstances. 

2. When the mode of heating is the indirect system, 
:h box coils and heaters in the basement, a most thorough 

: \ eatilation may be secured, and it is in fact concomitant with 
; the heating. 

! 3. Whatever may be the distance of the rooms from the 
I source of heat, a simple steam pipe of small diameter con- 
j veys the heat. From the indirect heaters underneath the 
i apartments to be heated, a vertical flue to eacb apartment 
\ places the flow of the low heated currents of the air under 
: the absolute control of the occupants of the apartment. 
\ Uniformity of temperature, with certainty of control, may 
' e thus secured- 

4- Proper hygrometric conditions of the air are better 

ariained. As tiie system suppHes large volumes of air 

heated only slightly above the external temperature, there is 

but little change in the relative degree of moisture of the air 

I as it passes through the apparatus. 

; 5. No injurious gases can pass from the furnace into the 
j' air flues. 

i 6. When the method of heat is by direct radiation in 
i the rooms, the advantage of steadiness and control of tem- 
perature, sufficient moisture and good ventilation, are not 
"s always secured; but this is rather the fault of design, since 
\ all these requirements are quite within reach of ordinary 
III contrivances. 

I 7. One of the conspicuous advantages of steam heating 

: - that the most extensive buildings, whole blocks, and even 

: ge districts of a city may be heated from one source, the 

ram at the same time furnishing power where needed for 

ntUation or other purposes, and being immediately avail- 

:lealso for extinguishing fires, either directly or through 

::rce pumps. 

I STOPPING WITH A HEAVY FIRE. 

I When it becomes necessary to stop an engine with a heavy 
I fire in the furnace, place a layer of fresh coal on the fire, shut 
the damper and start the injector or pump for the purpose of 
eeping up the circulation in the boiler. 



155 
ANALYSIS OF BOILER INCRUSTATION. 

BY DR. WALLACE. 

Carbonate of lime 64.98 

Sulphate of lime 9. 33 

Magnesia 6.93 

Combined water 3. 15 

Chloride of sodium .23 

Oxide of iron 1.36 

Phosphate of lime of alumina 3.72 

Silica 6.60 

Organic matter 1. 60 

Moisture at 212 de<^rees Y 2.10 



CLEANING BOILER TUBES. 

The method of cleaning boiler tubes depends upon the 
kind of fuel used. A steam jet will not answer where wood 
and soft coal are used, but will do for hard coal, though in 
any case a scraper is indispensable, where a steam jet is not. 
Soot and dust will collect in the tubes and burn on so as to 
require more than a jet of steam to move it. A steam jet or 
blower should be used only where dry steam is at hand, but 
by no means with wet steam. Before using the jet, thor- 
oughly blow all the water out of it and heat it up. We have 
seen some men put the point of the jet in a tube and turn on 
steam before warming, and then wonder what caused the brick 
work to crumble away at the back end . 

CLEANING BRASS. 

The government method prescribed for cleaning brass, 
and in use at all the United States arsenals, is said to be 
the best in the world. The plan is, to make a mixture of 
one part of common nitric, and one-half part sulphuric acid 
in a stone jar, having also a pail of fresh water and a box of 
saw-dust. The articles to be treated are first dipped into 
the acid, then removed into the water, and finally rubbed 
with the saw- dust. This immediately changes them into a 
brilliant color. If the brass has become greasy, it is first 
dipped into a strong solution of potash or soda, in warm 
water. This dissolves the grease, so that the acid has power 
to act. 

THE THERMAL UNIT 

Is the heat necessary to raise one pound of water at 39° F. 
one degree, or to 40^ F. 



156 

EXPLOSION OF A FEED WATER HEATER. 

Two men were killed and another injured recently by the 
explosion of a feed water heater which consisted of a plain 
rectangular tank in which the exhaust from a steam-winch 
was blown on the surface of the water. This tank measured 
9 feet in length by 3 feet 3 inches in width, and 3 feet and 
3 inches in depth, and was made throughout of wrought - 
iron plates three-eighths of an inch thick, while the top 
and the bottom were secured by angle-iron to the vertical 
plates. 

The cause of the explosion was extremely simple. On 
the top of the tank there was an open pipe ij^ inches in 
diameter for the purpose of carrying away the exhaust heat 
from the engine. This was attached to the tank by the 
means of a flange, and the joint was made by the means of 
a sheet of india rubber one-eighth of an inch thick. The 
man who made the joint had made the holes for the bolts 
to pass through, but had neglected to make the opening 
for the steam to pass through, so that the steam was 
bottled up in the tank. In consequence of this the pressure 
went on accumulating as the engine continued working, 
and, as the feed water tank proved to be weaker than the 
india-rubber diaphragm, the flat top was blown off with 
the result recorded. 

The following table shows the pressure allowed and 
thickness required of boiler iron by the laws of the United 
States, pressure equivalent to the standard, for a boiler X 
inch thick and 42 inches in diameter : 





Diameter. 


w ,/ 


in 


tA 


tfi 


t/5 


t/i 


m 


(Ti 


^ 


<V 


a> 


<u 


OJ 


OJ 


<V 


<D 


c-^ 


rC 


r^ 


rC 


r^ 




rC 


rC 


:^- 













■73 





a 


















^ a 


t}- 


-o 


00 





c^ 


rf- 


vo 


H- 


ro 


CO 


en 


""t 


rj- 


'^ 


^ 




lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


Ibs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


5 


169.9 


160.4 


152. 


144.4 


137.5 


131. 2 


125 5 


4>^ 


I5S.5 


149-7 


141. 8 


134.7 


128.3 


122.5 


117. 2 


4X 


147.2 


139. 1 


131. 8 


125. 1 


119. 2 


113. 7 


108.8 


4 


135. 9 


128.3 


121. 6 


115. 5 


1 10 


105. 


100 


sH 


124.5 


117. 6 


1 1 1 .4 


105.9 


100.8 


96.2 


92. 


3^ 


113. 2 


106.9 


101.3 


96.2 


91.7 


^^5 


•?i- 


3 


101.9 


96.2 


91-2 


82.7 


S2^ 


78.7 



157 
DANGER FROM THE MANHOLE COVER. 

The Manchester (Eng. ) Steam Users' Association lately 
made a report on the above subject, giving the particulars of 
nearly tv^^enty distressing accidents arising from careless- 
ness or ignorance in handling that appliance of the steam 
boiler which had occurred during the past few years in 
England. 

In the hrst case noted, two men were killed and a 
third injured. In the depositions made at the coronor's 
^nquest, it appeared that the manhole lid was fast- 
ened down with twelve bolts, and that these had been 
taken out, when the lid was suddenly blown off. The error 
in judgment consisted in taking out the bolts securing the 
manhole lid, with the safety valve shut down. Not only 
should the valves be blocked up so as to be held open, but 
also it should be seen that all escape of steam from them had 
absolutely ceased before the nuts were removed. 

It should not be overlooked that the adhesion afforded 
by the red-lead joint is a dangerous trap. Though there may 
be pressure lingering in the boiler, the joint holds the lid 
down for a time, but on being lightly disturbed it allows the 
lid to be suddenly blown off, when a violent rush of steam 
ensues which in many cases has been attended with fatal 
results. 

The association report several cases where death has been 
caused by attempting to lighten up the manhole cover bolts 
under pressure, although nearly all the instances Arose from 
attempting to take off the cover before the presfure of the 
steam was quite down. A single case was reported when 
compressed air had caused a fatal accident. The boiler had 
been laid off for cleaning and pumped nearly full of water 
in order to cool it. The attendant had taken off the nuts 
of the cover, and struck it once or twice in order to 
loosen the joint, when the cover was blown off by the com- 
pressed air within the boiler, and, striking him on the head, 
killed him instantlv. 

The report showed the cause of death of twenty-four per- 
sons and the injury of eight others, and it indicates the 
importance of propping up safety valves so as to hold them 
open; and also making sure that all escape of air or steam 
through them has actually ceased before the nuts of the 
manhole cover are taken off. 



Recent experiments show that water, uncontaminated with 
carbonic acid, will not corrode lead service pipes. 



158 
MISTAKES IN DESIGNING BOILERS. 

One of the greatest mistakes that can be made in design- 
ing boilers, and the one that is most frequently made of any, 
consists in putting in a grate too large for the heating sur- 
face of the boiler, so that with a proper rate of combustion 
of the fuel an undue proportion of the heat developed passes 
off through the chimney, the heating surface of the boiler 
being insufficient to permit its transmission to the water. 
This mistake has been so long and so universally made, and 
boiler owners have so often had to run slow fires under their 
boilers to save themselves from bankruptcy, that it has given* 
rise to the saying, " Slow combustion is necessary for econ- 
omy." This saying is considered an axiom, and regarded 
with great veneration by many, when the fact is, if the 
truth must be told, it has been brought about by the waste- 
fulness entailed by boiler plants and proportioned badly by 
ignorant boilermakers and ignorant engineers, who ought to 
know better, but don't. 

Let us consider the matter briefly : Suppose we are 
running the boiler at a pressure of 80 lbs. per square inch, 
the temperature of the steam and water inside will be about 
325 degrees F. ; the temperature of the fire in the furnace 
will, under ordinary conditions, be about 2,500 degi^ees F. 
Now, it should be clear to the dullest comprehension, that 
we can transmit to the water in the boiler only that heat due 
to the difference between the temperature in the furnace and 
that in the boiler. In case of the above figures, about 
seven-eight% of the total heat of combustion is all that 
could, by any possibility, be utilized, and this would require 
that radiation of heat from every source should be absolutely 
■ prevented, and that the gases should leave the boiler at the 
exact temperature of the steam inside, or 325 degrees. 

To express the matter plainly, we may say that the 
utilization of the effect of 2, fall of temperature of 2.175 
degrees is all that is possible. 

Now, suppose, as one will actually find to be the case in 
many cases if he investigates carefully, that the gases leave 
the flues of another steam boiler at a temperature between 
500 and 600 degrees. The latter temperature will be found 
quite common, as it is considered to give "good draft." 
This is quite true, especially as far as the " draft " on the 
owner's pocket-book is concerned, for he cannot possibly 
utilize under these conditions more than 2,500 — 500=2,000 
degrees of that inevitable difference of temperature to which 
he is confined, or four-fifths of the total, instead of the 



159 

seven-eighths, as shown above, where the boiler was running 
just right, and any attempt to reduce the temperature of the 
escaping gases by means of slower " combustion," as he 
would probably be advised to do by nine out of ten men, 
would simply reduce the temperature of the fire in his fur- 
nace, and the economical result would be about the same. 
His grate is too large to burn coal to the best possible advan- 
tage, and his best remedy is to reduce its size and keep his 
fire as hot as he can. 

This is not speculation, as some may be inclined to think. 
Direct experiments have been made to settle the question. 
The grate under a certain boiler was tried at different sizes 
with the following result: 

With grate six feet long ratio of grate to heating 'surface 
was I to 24.4. 

With grate four feet long ratio of grate to heating surface 
was o to 36.6. ^ 

The use of the smaller grate gave, with different fuels and 
all the methods of firing, an average economy of nine per 
cent, above the larger one, and, when compared by burning 
the same amount of coal per hour on each, twelve per cent, 
greater rapidity of evaporation and economy were obtained 
with the smaller grate. 

Average breaking and crushing strains 
of iron and steel. 

Breaking strain of wrought iron =23 tons'] 

Crushing strain of wrought iron =17 tons j 

Breaking strain of cast iron about *]% tons ( Per square inch 

Crushing strain of cast iron =50 tons. ... 1 of section. 

Breaking strain of steel bars about 50 tons | 

Crushing strain of steel bars up to 1 16 tons J 

PITTING OF MUD DRUMS. 

Mud drums have frequently been known to pit through 
their close connection to the brick work with which they 
are covered. When the boiler is filled with cold water, the 
iron will sweat. This moisture mixing with the lime of the 
brick work will, after a length of time, injure the iron. 
Mud drums are injured on the inside by a similar chemical 
action. The sediments of lime, etc., deposit there where 
their action goes on undisturbed by any circulation. To 
prevent pitting on the inside from this cause, blow down fre- 
quently, and, on the outside, keep the brick off the plates, 
so that all moisture can pass off. 



i6o 
TABLE OF SPECIFIC GRAVITIES. 

Weight of a Cubic 
Inch in Lbs. 

Copper, cast 3178 

Iron, cast 263 

Iron, wrought 276 

Lead 4103 

Steel 2827 

Sun-metal 3^77 

DIVISIONS OF DEGREES OF HEAT. 

The thermometer is an instrument for measuring sensible 
heat. It consists of a glass tube of very fine bore, terminat- 
ing in a bulb. This bulb is filled with mercury, and the top 
of the tube is hermetically sealed after all the air has been 
expelled. The instrument is then put into steam arising 
from boiling water, and, when the barometer stands at thirty 
inches, a mark is placed on a scale affixed opposite the place 
the mercury stands at. It is again put in melting ice, and 
the scale again marked. The space between these marks is 
divided into spaces called degrees. In this country and 
England it is divided into 180 equal parts, calling freezing 
point 32°, so that the boiling point is 212^ ; and zero or o is 
32^ belowfreezing point, and this scale is called Fahrenheit's. 
On the continent two other scales are in use; the Centi- 
grade, in which the space is divided into 100 equal parts, 
hence the name; and Reaumur's, in which the space is 
divided into 80. In both of these scales freezing point is o, 
or zero ; so that the boiling point of centigrade is 100^, and 
Reaumur 80^. 

THE LAW OF PROPORTION IN STEAM 
ECONOMY. 

( The basis of steam engineering science consists in closely 

adhering to the absolute ratio or proportion of the different 

1 parts of the steam-plant, representing the power of the en- 

t gine and boiler to the amount of the work to be done. To 

f use an extreme illustration, it is not scientific to construct a 

c hundred horse power boiler — say i ,500 square feet of heating 

surface — to furnish steam for a six-inch cylinder; nor is it in 

(j proportion to use a cylinder of the latter size to drive a 

ii sewing machine. It may be said truthfully that the law of 

c true proportion between boiler, engine and the desired 

1 amount of work is less understood than almost any other in 

the range of mechanical practice. 



m 



i6i 

PROPORTIONS OF VARIOUS COMPOSITIONS IN 

COMMON USE. 

(In lOO parts.) 

Babbitt's metal Tin, 89; copper 3.7; antimony, 7.3. 

Fine yellow brass Copper, 66; zinc, 34. 

Gun metal, valves, etc. .Copper, 90; tin, 10. 

White brass Copper, 10; zinc, 80; tin, 10. 

German silver Copper, 33.3; zinc, 33.4; nickel, 33.3. 

Church bells Copper, 80; zinc, 5.6; tin, 10. i; 

lead, 4.3. 

Gongs Copper, 81.6; tin, 18.4. 

Lathe bushes Copper, 80; tin, 20. 

Machinery bearings, . . .Copper, 87.5 ; tin, 12.5. 

Muntz metal Copper, 60; zinc, 40. 

Sheathing metal Copper, 56; zinc, 44. 

HORSE POWER OF STEAM BOILERS. 

It is often remarked that there is no such thing as horse 
power of steam boilers. This is true, because the same 
amount of heating surface in a locomotive under full head, 
or with the exhaust steam creating a powerful draught, is 
many times greater than in the two-Hue boiler with the same 
heating surface, under ordinary conditions; but for commer- 
cial uses and convenience, rules have been agreed upon to 
designate the horse power of various kinds of boilers. 

At the Centennial Exposition, held at Philadelphia, it 
was agreed by the competitors and the highest scientific 
authorities, that the evaporation of thirty pounds of water 
at a temperature of 212^ should be considered to be equal to 
one horse power. 

In buying and selling boilers, it is usually considered that 
fifteen square feet of heating surface in the horizontal tubu- 
lar boiler is equal to one horse power. The quality of the 
water, as to its impurities, the form of construction and 
condition of the boiler, all modify the rule of buying a speci- 
fied power in a boiler by the amount of heating surface. 

A GOOD LUBRICATOR. 

It may not be generally known that tallow and plumbago, 
thoroughly mixed, make the best lubricator for surfaces when 
one is wood, or when both are wood. Oil is not so good aw 
tallow to mix with plumbago for the lubrication of wooden 
surfaces, because oil ])enetrates and saturates the wood to a 
greater degree than tallow, causing it \o swell more. 



1 62 

HOW TO TEST BOILERS. 

The safe-working pressure of any boiler is found by 
multiplying twice the thickness of plate by its tensile 
strength in pounds, then divide by diameter of boiler, 
then this result divide by six. This gives safe working 
pressure. 

EXAMPLE. 

Twice thickness plate X tensile strength -7- diameter of 
boiler in inches-7-6=safe working pressure + one-half more 
= maximum test pressure. 

Diameter of boiler, 60". Thickness of plate, %". 
Tensile strength of plate, 60,000 lbs. i'^x6o,ooo-h6o= 
1,000^6=1665^ R)s., which is the safe working pressure + 
^2>% R)s. = 25o lbs., which is the maximum test pressure. 

After the safe pressure has been found as above, the 

' usual way is to add one-half more for a test pressure, then 

apply by hydraulic pressure as high as the test pressure, and, 

if the boiler goes through this test all right, it is safe to 

run it at two-thirds of test pressure. 

Before putting hydraulic pressure on an old boiler, empty 
the boiler, go over it carefully with the hammer for broken 
braces, weak and corroded spots, figure for safe pressure on 
the thinnest place found in boiler, fill boiler full of cold 
water, and gradually heat it until the desired pressure is 
reached. By this mode of testing by hot water pressure, the 
heated water is expanded, and is more elastic than when cold, 
and is not so liable to strain the boiler. 

Before allowing the pressure to be applied, see that the 
boiler is properly braced and stayed, and that the rivets are 
of proper size. 

All flat surfaces, such as found in fire-box boilers, should 
liave stays not over 5 or 6 inches apart, for all ordinary 
pressure and boiler heads not over 7 inches apart. 

On account of the loss of strength in the plates by rivet 
holes, some authorities allow only 70 per cent, of the safe 
pressure given above, for double-riveted boilers, and 56 per 
cent, for single-riveted boilers: 

EXAMPLE. 

166 lbs. safe pressure in first example x 70 per cent, for 
I double-rivets = 116.20 Tbs. safe pressure for double-riyeted 

hoiler. 
^ 166 lbs. safe pressure in first example X56 per cent, for 
Y single-riveted seams = 92.96 lbs. safe pressure for single- 

riveted boilers. 



i63 
SCALE IN BOILERS 

Mr. T. T. Parker writes as follows to the A^nertcan 
Machinist : 

If there is one thing more than another that the average 
engineer is careful with, it is the use of boiler compounds. 
With an open exhaust heater and an overworked boiler, and 
using water from a drilled well sixty feet deep in limestone, I 
have had to be rather careful to avoid scale and foaming. 

I offer some notes from my experience under the above 
conditions. 

In using compounds containing sal soda, I had to use 40 
per cent, more cylinder oil, and this invariably reacted, 
through the heater and feed water, on the boiler, and pro- 
duced foaming. I have used six compounds, warranted to 
cure foaming with above results. The compounds were 
tannic acid and soda. 

Changing to the use of crude oil, I found that the volatile 
parts went over to the engine, and saved 10 per cent, cylinder 
oil over when using nothing, and 50 per cent, over the use 
of sal soda. There is a peculiar easy manner of making 
steam that is very different from the same boiler using sal 
soda. The results on scale are as follows : 

In changing to a different solvent, the results for a few 
runs were very good, and then it seemed to lose its virtue 
while losing double quantity ; result, foaming. With crude 
oil used continually, I have had scale from one-eighth inch 
thick, but never any thicker, as it came off clean, and was 
very porous. I prefer oil to any acid or alkali solvent. 
For cleaning a scaled boiler I would recommend alternate 
use of oil and sal soda, but the remedy is heroic. If the 
boiler is not clean in two weeks, I miss my guess. I have 
tried kerosene, and found it too volatile to be of value in a 
limestone district. In summing up the results, I believe : 

First — With an open exhaust heater, use only the 
best cylinder oil, which should be at least 80 per cent, 
petroleum. 

Second — If the crude oil does not keep the scale all 
out, alternate one run with sal soda. 

Now, I only offer this as my experience, knowing full 
well that the conditions are never absolutely the same. 
But I know of a plant (in this city) where the boiler is not 
worked up to its full capacity, and which is kept entirely 
free from scale, using hard water, by the alternate use of sal 
soda and crude oil. 



164 
FUTURE OF THE STEAiM ENGINE. 

The annual meeting of the British Association for the 
Advancement of Science, lately held at Bath, England, was 
opened by an address by Sir Frederick Bramwell, the pres- 
ident of the association, in which he repeated a prediction 
made by him at a former meeting of the association regard- 
ing the displacement of the steam engine in the future. He 
said it was a sad confession to have to make, that the very 
best steam engines only utilized about one-sixth of the work 
which resides in the fuel that is consumed, though at the 
same time it is a satisfaction to know that great economical 
progress had been made, and that the six pounds or seven 
pounds of fuel per horse power per hour consumed by the 
very best engines of Watts' days, when working with the 
aid of condensation, is now brought down to about one- 
fourth of this consumption. Continuing, he said: At the 
York meeting of our association I ventured to predict that, 
unless some substantial improvement were made m the steam 
engine (of which improvement, as yet, we have no notion), 
I believed its days for small powers were numbered, and that 
those who attended the centenary of the British Association 
in 1931, would see the present steam engines in museums, 
treated as things to be respected, and of antiquarian mterest, 
by^the engineers of those days, such as the over-topped 
steam cylinders of Xewcomen and of Smeaton to our- 
selves. I must say I see no reason, after the seven years 
which have elapsed since the York meeting, to regret having 
made that prophecy, or to desire to withdraw from it. 
The working of heat engines, without the intervention of 
] the vapor of water by the combustion of the gases arising 

* from coal, or from coal and from water, is now not merely 
an established fact, but a recognized and undoubted 

^ commercially economical means of obtaining motive power. 

^ Such engines, developing from i to 40 horse power, and 

worked by ordinary gas supplied by gas mains, are in 

• most extensive use in printing works, hotels, clubs, 
theaters, and even in large private houses, for the working 
of dynamos to supply electric light. Such engines are also 

^ in use in factories, being sometimes driven by the gas 

obtained from " culm " and steam, and are given forth a 
^ horse-power for, it is stated, as small a consumption as one 

^ pound of fuel per hour. It is hardly necessary to remind 

^ you — but let me do it — that, although the saving of half a 

^ pound of fuel per horse-power appears to be insignificant 

when stated in that bald way, one realizes that it is of the 



i6s 

highest importance when that half-pound turns out to be 
33 per cent, of the whole previous consumption of one of 
those economical engines to which I have referred. But, 
looking at the wonderful petroleum industry, and at the 
multifarious products which are obtained from the crude 
material, is it too much to say that there is a future for 
motor engines worked by the vapor of some of the more 
highly volatile of these products — true vapor — not a gas, 
but a condensable body capable of being worked over and 
over again? Numbers of such engines, some of as much as 
four horse-power, made by Mr. Yarrow, are now running, 
and are apparently giving good results, certainly excellent 
results as regards the compactness and lightness of the 
machinery; for boat purposes they possess the great advan- 
tage of being rapidly under way. I h'^ve seen one go to 
work within two minutes of the striking of J:he match to 
light the burner. Again, as we know, the vapor of this 
material has been used as a gas in gas engines, the motive 
power having been obtained by direct combustion. Having 
regard to these considerations, was I wrong in predicting 
that the heat engine of the future will probably be one inde- 
pendent of the vapor of water? And further, in these days 
of electrical advancement, is it too much to hope for the 
direct production of electricity from the combustion of fuel ? 

GAS FOR LOCOMOTIVES. 

The problem of obtaining a cheaper fuel than coal for 
locomotives, which has long bothered railroad men, seems 
likely to be solved soon by experiments now being made with 
gas. A very good test of the new fuel has been made at the 
works of the electric light company in West Chester, which, 
since the fire that destroyed the old plant several months ago, 
have been dependent for their motive power upon the Shaw 
locomotive. This is the engine that made such a good record 
in some trial trips two or three years ago, but which has never 
done much road service. C 

Instead of coal, gas mixed with air has been used in the 
locomotive with entire success in generating sufficient power 
to drive the dynamos. With larger machines for producing 
and mixing the gas, it is believed that power enough can be 
obtained for driving locomotives with trains, and a special car 
is now being built at New York to hold a large machine of 
the kind usSl in mixing the gas, and the storage receivers. 



i66 

PROPORTIONS OF STEAM BOILERS. 

In a recent communication to the Societe Scientifique 
Industrielle of Marseilles, M. D. Stapfer remarked that, as 
he had never met with any good practical rules for the pro- 
portions of boilers for steam engines, he had taken the trou- 
,j ble to examine a very large number of different types, which 

I, were working satisfactorily, and from them had deduced the 

following rules : The water level in the boilers of torpedo 
boats was usually placed at two-thirds the diameter of the 
shell, and in marine, portable and locomotive boilers at three- 
fourths this diameter. The surface from which evaporation 
took place should, however, be made greater as the steam 
pressure was reduced — that was to say, as the size of the 
bubbles of steam became greater. To produce lOO lbs. of 
steam per hour, at a1>mospheric pressure, this surface should 
not be less than 7.32 square ft., which may be reduced to 
1.46 square ft. for steam at 75 lbs. pressure, and 0.73 ft. for 
steam at a pressure of 150 fbs. It is for this reason that 
triple-expansion engines can be worked with smaller boilers 
than were required with engines using steam of lower pres- 
sure. The amount of steam space to be permitted depends 
upon the volume of the cylinder and the number of revolu- 
tions made per minute. For ordinary engines it may be 

; made a hundred times as great as the average volume of 

steam generated per second. The section through the tubes 
may be one-sixth of the fire-grate area when the draught is 
due to chimney from 27 ft. to 33 ft. high, which in general 
corresponds to a fuel consumption of 12,3 pounds of coal 

J per square foot of grate surface per hour. This area may 

be reduced to one-tenth that of the grate when forced 

^ draught is employed. 

' TESTING BOILER PLATES. 

\ A good every-day shop plan of testing boiler plates is to cut 

( off a strip iX inches wide and of any convenient length. 

Drill a quarter-inch hole, and enlarge it to three-quarters of 
an inch by means of a drift-pin and hammer. If the plate 
shows no signs of fracture, it may be considered of good 
quality. 

Another method is to cut off a narrow strip, heat it 
to a cherry red and cool suddenly. Grip the piece in a vise, 
and bend it back and forth at right angles by means of a 
piece of gas pipe dropped over the end. The number of 
times the piece can stand this bending is the measure of its 
quality. A good piece of soft steel boiler-plate should stand 
twelve or fifteen bendings without showing fracture. 



107 
IGNORANCE ABOUT BOILERS. 

The facts which might be brought out by a well-directed 
examination of the persons in charge of steam boilers in 
some sections of the country would be amusing, were it not 
for the fact that a steam boiler in charge of a too ignorant 
person is always an element of great danger. Not long 
since a boiler exploded in one of our cities, and, as such a 
thing had not occurred in that vicinity for some time, people 
were somewhat stirred up over the matter, and an examina- 
tion of the engineers and boilers was of course in order. 
The following are some of the incidents reported as a result 
of the examination : 

In one place a pile of ashes about four feet high was 
found banked up against the side of a boiler. The engineer 
was asked why they were there, and he replied that " the 
boiler was sweating a little," and that he had put them 
there to keep the water from coming out of it. The ashes 
were immediately removed, and four or five holes were 
found in the boiler through which the water was oozing. 
The boiler was under a pressure of sixty pounds at the 
time. Over thirty people were employed in the immediate 
vicinity of the boiler. 

Some ludicrous answers were made by candidates for 
engineers' licenses. For instance, one candidate when 
asked the dimensions of the boiler he was running replied, 
" two and one-half feet high, one foot in diameter, and 120 
one and one-half inch tubes in it." It was afterward ascer- 
tained that the boiler was 48 inches in diameter and 1 1 feet 
long. No license was given in this case. 

Another applicant averj-ed that the boiler he was running 
" was 24 feet high, eight inches in diameter, and had a 
three-foot square grate under it . " This boiler proved to be 
about ten feet high and forty inches in diameter. 

In one place where there was a battery of five boilers, 
the steam gauges were found indicating all the way from 
38 to 100 pounds, when the pressure on the boilers was 
about 80 pounds. Many other instances of gross ignorance 
and neglect might be cited, but the above are sufficient to 
show the alarming state of affairs which prevails in some 
places. 

There is a town in Ohio called Tanktown, where ther^ are 
nineteen 35,000-barrel tanks, with three more in course of 
erection, three more to be built soon, making a total tankage 
capacity of 875,000 barrels. 



i68 

ANNEALING STEEL BOILERS. 

A discovery of great importance to steamship and steam- 
boat owners has recently been made by George V. Sloate, 
superintendent engineer of the old Dominion steamship line, 
New York. It is a well-known fact that steel plates form- 
ing the furnaces and connections of marine boilers, after a 
few years' use become crystallized, and crust to such an extent 
that in many cases they have to be renewed at great expense. 
By using Sloate's process of annealing about once every 
three years, the metal is fully restored to its normal condi- 
tion, viz. : full strength, ductility and proper reduction of 
area wdien tested. This treatment will insure the furnaces 
and connections lasting as long as the boiler. Boilers, with 
the advantage of surface condensers, should, with proper 
management and care, give twenty years' actual service, 
withmoderate cost for repairs. The furnaces of the steam- 
1 ships " Roanoke" and " Guyandotte," after five years' serv- 

ice, commenced to crack over the bridge walls to such an 
extent that the company had to renew two of them on each 
ship. Upon examination, it was found that the steel in the 
old furnaces had become crystallized, and was as brittle as 
; cast iron ; in fact, it resembled the latter more than the 

original steel. By heating it to a mild red heat, and after- 
ward allowing it to cool off gradually, the apparently worn- 
out metal was restored to its original condition and tensile 
. strength. ^ 

^ ^ Thus it was, Mr. Sloate conceived the idea of heating 

and annealing it. The work of accomplishing this object is 

. very simple. The boiler is emptied of water, all man-hole 

and hand-hole plates are put on, and the boiler is hermeti- 

I cally sealed. Before closing the furnace doors, a bridge wall 

is built up within 3 in. of the furnace all round. After this 

^ a form is made of boiler iron, 2 ft. less in diameter than the 

^ furnace, and about 3 ft. long. The space between is then 

filled with chemical or tinder dried wood, after which the 

^ ash pans are closed, and the fires lighted. When a red heat 

^ is reached, the dampers are closed, and all air excluded from 

. furnaces. The fire burns slowly for from twenty-five to thirty 

~ hours, and, after all the wood is consumed, the furnace is* 

allowed to cool off gradually. Upon opening the furnace, 

^ the steel is found to have become annealed and restored to 

^ its normal condition, without any injury to the boiler or loss 

f- of time to the ship. The boilers of the steamships " Seneca " 

J- and ^ Guyandotte " have undergone this treatment, thereby 

saving the owners the expense of repairing the furnaces. 



169 
THE FIREMAN AT SEA. 

Among firemen there are, as might be expected, many 
varieties. There is usually a fresh supply every voyage, 
and their combinations are usually as varied as those of the 
kaleidoscope. Though selected of one apparent uniform 
quality, no sooner is the vessel fairly on her voyage than 
one will develop an unruly disposition, not only making 
all the others uncomfortable, but sometimes changing the 
character of the whole group, and ^making them difficult to 
manage. Then another falls ill, and it turns out that 
he was ill when he came, and, being unfit for work on 
shore, thought that he w^ould make sure of his food and 
lodgings and medical attendance for a few weeks or 
months, with some pay at the end, taking his chance of 
whatever disagreeables might arise, in the knowledge that 
these could not be worse than if he were starving ashore. 
As firemen are not always of the most robust appearance, 
it would puzzle the best medical man to judge, when engag- 
ing them, who were or were not unfit for work by illness 
or laziness. Besides this, the most vigorous are frequently 
the most unmanageable. Though size and strength in an 
engineer may keep such men in order, yet ruling by physical 
strength is a poor way. Such an engineer, though obeyed 
with more apparent alacrity than another, is really worse 
served than those who regard the men as human, and not 
mere machines. There is a well authenticated case of a 
" second," who, finding complaints made by one of the men 
that he could not stand the heat of the fires, had the man 
lashed to the iron companion ladder in front of the opened 
fire doors. The victim died in consequence, but, a doctor 
being on board, the case was, it is said, entered in the log 
book as one of apoplexy, or some other natural cause, and 
the matter was hushed up.» According to latest accounts, 
that " second '* was still in the same employ. Strict disci- 
pline can be maintained by far better means than this. 

It is often difficult to know what to do with a man who 
" lays up. " In a case of real illness, he will meet sympathy, 
tempered, perhaps, with an occasional growl from those who 
are doing his work; but, when a man has purposely come 
aboard ill, his comforts must be of the scantiest and his 
medicines of the nastiest, or he will lie in his bunk all the 
voyage. )ne fireman, suspected of being a Joafer, was sum- 
moned aft to receive his medicine, which was concocted 
entirely with a view to its being of specially atrocious flavor. 
He drank it calmly to the bottom, looked into the glass, 



I70 

and, seeing a few dregs left, drained these to the bottom; 

then, expressing his gratitude for the good he knew it was 

going to do him, walked feebly away, leaving the stewards 

in consternation at his hardihood. Engineers have to use 

their judgment in such cases, and sometimes must have a 

man driven to his work by physical force, or the threat of it, 

though, in one unfortunate instance, a man so driven died 

most inconveniently on the deck. Sometimes one of the 

men, envying the happy lot of the loafer in his bunk, will 

fall ill also, so that loafer No. i has to be driven forth to 

do the work of No. 2. Where such happens, it will almost 

certainly come to pass that the illness will go round all the 

men in rotation, one at a time, as if prearranged; thus, the 

one who set the ball rolling is forced to do his share of work 

till his turn comes around for well-earned repose. Soon 

1 after the writer went to sea, he mentioned to his chief that 

i he was out of sorts. To his surprise, he heard that the chief 

] was also ill; and, on narrating the coincidence to the " second, " 

he discovered, to his disgust, that he was also similarly 

1 affected. The fact is, that at sea a man must work, whether 

1 well or ill, unless absolutely unfit for it. 

: Firemen are usually well in port, for there the draw- 

backs of a forecastle residence are more felt, and there is 
'. also the ever-present fear of being left behind in a foreign 

hospital. It can thus easily be seen that a fireman's lot is 
t no bed of roses, and that his pay is well-earned. Though 

t his pay exceeds that of a sailor, while his hardships may not 

' be greater than those of his acquaintances who live and work 

( on shore, when work is to be had, and though beneath 

t both him and them are others yet worse off, yet an engineer 

} should remember that the fireman is but weighted down a 

e little lower than himself, by the same competition which is 

diminishing his own pay as well as the profits of the ship- 
1 owner, sucking down wages and profits that rents may 

c rise. Many of these firemen, in spite of all disadvantages, 

give promise of the highest qualities, only awaiting develop- 
I ment. 

t •In selecting firemen, those are especially to be avoided 

: wno parade their experience when applying for work, 

c These are the sea-lawyers, dreaded of captains ; or, rather, 

they are captain and engineer and steward, all in one. • it is 
c amusing to see one such, sitting in the center of a crowd of 

I firemen and sailors, discoursing, with voluble tongue, 

c of how this engineer or that captain acted in certain cir- 

1: cumstances, and always to the disparagement of those he is 

under at the time. He narrates minutely how well they 



171 

were provisioned in the last ship ; for such a one always has 
found " the last ship " so full of perfection that one wonders 
why he ever left it. 

Sailors and firemen, too, often have good cause to com- 
plain of their food, and grumble sometimes, to the verge of 
mutiny by refusing to work with the strength which they 
have not derived from insufficient and bad food. They 
know that in many cases, unless they insist on getting " their 
whack," they will go short. Though there are many worthy 
and kind-hearted men among ship captains, yet the opposite 
being the rule, grumbling has also become the rule, and the 
men cannot always deny themselves the pleasure of com- 
plaining, even when well treated — like the man who was 
never happy unless he was miserable. 

In one ship, where, as the story goes, the captain was 
determined to conquer by kindness, he had a goose cooked, 
and sent to the men at Christmas. Curiosity^ caused them 
to gather about the galley door to discuss the event, the 
conclusion being that there " must be something wrong 

with the goose, or it would not have been acnt " 

to them. Such discontent throws light on all past and pres- 
ent relations in that and every other ship. On another sim- 
ilar occasion the captain was said to have sent a plum-pud- 
ding to his men. After consuming it, a deputation went 
aft to return thanks, and with the request that the next time 
a plum-pudding was sent to them, there might be more 
plums. With complaints of bad food, the engineers cannot 
directly deal. The men have to fight their own battle, and, 
as a rule, they are well able to do so. Of course, if they 
refuse to work in consequence of insufficient food, the question 
comes prominently to the front; but a captain will do much 
to avoid this. When a captain is acting fairly to his men, 
the most effective cure he can apply is to put them strictly 
on their legal allowance, stopping all extras. The threat of 
this will usually stop any unreasonable complaints. 

With engineers or firemen in opposition to the powers 
that be, care must be taken to keep out of the log book, 
except their case is good. Once a formal complaint is laid 
before the captain, he has to " log " the offender, and this he 
dare not afterward erase. The log book, after each voyage, 
is scrutinized by the Board of Trade, and, so strict are they, 
that in one case, when a large blot had fallen on the page, 
the captain had to make a formal declaration that nothing 
was concealed by it. Only when other means fail, should a 
man be logged.-* It not only makes him reckless for the rest 
of the voyage, on the principle of being " as well hanged for 



172 

a sheep as for a lamb, " but the official mvestigation of the 
matter at home, leads to much trouble and delay, and its 
issue is uncertain. Once the voyage is over, many matters 
which seemed at the time to be of importance, sink into 
insignificance. Unless in very bad cases, there are many 
ways of punishing a man at sea without any formal trial 
ashore. In some cases an effective way is to turn the laugh 
of his fellows against an offender, such as, telling him that, 
as his knowledge is of a superior kind, you would be glad if 
he would take charge of the work himself. Such a request 
rarely fails to have a disconcerting effect, whether stated 
jocularly or with contempt. 

The Board of Trade is the seafarer's best friend, 
whether he hail from the sooty or the tarry side of the ship. 
Argus-eyed, hundred-handed, its agents, the consuls, are in 
every port to redress wrongs and give assistance and advice 
of every kind to whoever applies for it, and none dare pre- 
vent such application. Though a captain and engineer may 
^ complain that it shows an undue partiality for firemen and 

sailors in order to display its supremacy, yet its influence is 
^ for good, and extends far beyond its visible limits, the dread 

^ of it preventing even an attempt at such oppression as Avas 

[ once openly practiced, for justice was tardy and uncertain in 

' the days preceding the steamship and telegraph. 

PRIESTMAN'S PETROLEUM ENGINE. 

. This new engine is described as follows: In a tank in the 

^ bed of the engine is placed the petroleum, which is forced 

^ through a pipe into a compartment where the oil is converted 

. into a fine spray by means of a blast of air. The spray 

passes into a chamber, is rendered explosive, and, coming in 
i contact with an electric spark — obtained from a small bat- 

tery in the rear — motive power is at once supplied. In 
^ construction it is comparatively simple; it works with ad- 

mirable regularity, and the piston requires no oiling, the 
petroleum vapor supplying necessary lubrication. 

' PROTECTION TO BOILER TUBES. 

f In order to prevent the rapid burning out of the front 

c end of the boiler tubes, a corrugated shield or inner cover for 
each tube has been devised by two Americans. This shield, 

c which may also be made with a plain surface, is to be applied 

V in the end of each tube at the point of each connection with 

c, the fire-box of the boiler. It is removable, and can be 

t easily replaced when destroyed. 



^72> 

OCEAN TONNAGE OF THE WORLD. 

The losses on ocean transportation business have been 
large from marine disasters of late years, but the new ton- 
nage to take its place has been in excess of that loss. The 
United Kingdom in 1887 turned out 130,000 tons new ships 
more than" in 1886. The commerce of twelve principal 
maritime countries, entrances and clearances in tons, were 
143,292,000 tons in 1875, against 209,853,000 in 1886, an 
increase within eleven years of 69,561,000 tons. The regis- 
tered tonnage, sail and steam, of these twelve countries in 
1875 was 13,432,000 tons, and in 1886, 15,793,000 tons, an 
increase of 2,361,000 tons from 1875 ^^ 1886. The steam 
tonnage in 1875 was 2,879,000 tons against 5,720,000 tons in 
1886, an increase of 2,841,000 tons from 1875 to 1886. This 
increase is estimated as being equal for work to be done to 
8,523,000 tons of sail tonnage. The business done per ton of 
shipping employed in 1875 was 10 6-10 tons^against 133-10 
tons in 1886. The rates of freight received in the last three 
years indicate that the tonnage is too large to make general 
investments in ships profitable. As between one year and 
the other, there may be a number of distributing influences 
coming into play, but as between four yearly periods, this 
cannot be the case to anything like the same extent. 
Average tonnage of the merchant navies of the principal 
maritime countries of Europe, 1878-85 : 

1878-81. 1882-85. Incr'se. Decr'se. 

Countries. tons. tons. 1882-85. 1882-85. 

United Kingdom 6,543,612 7,213,991 670,379 

Norway 1,519,105 i)555>9i3 36,808 

Sweden 534, 9^7 523,425 11,482 

Denmark 251,510 270,834 19,324 

Germany 1,169,229 1,268,216 98,987 

Holland 334,997 305,915 29,082 

France 935,602 1,005,185 69,583 

Italy 1,005,845 971,939 33.906 

Totals ■..12,294,817 13,115,428 895,081 74,470 

Total net increase 1882-85, 820,611. 

The seven countries above named require an average of 
420,000 tons of new tonnage to reconstitute removals and 
vessels wrecked or otherwise destroyed. 

^ TO CLEAN SOLDER EROM OLD EILES. 

To clean solder from old files, soak the file in raw muriatic 
acid for twenty-four hours, and you will have almost a new 
file. 



174 
THE MANAGEMENT OF FUEL. 

The Scientific Commission has reported that of 5,000,000 
tons of coal annually consumed in London, 3,000,000 are 
combusted, and 2,000,000 go off in smoke and gas to create 
fogs and injure health and property. Doubtless, a like in- 
quiry into the waste of fuel in this country would result in 
substantially the same conclusion, especially where soft coal 
is used. Our housewives do not realize that of every five 
cords of wood they burn, one is literally throwTi away, and 
so of coal, but such is the fact. 

The process of combustion is continually going on within 
us and around us. It is simply the union of the oxygen of 
the air with substances for which it has affinity. In our body 
the oxygen unites with the waste tissues of the body, and 
produces heat without visible flame. The rusting of iron is 
combustion, flameless, and without sensible heat. Though 
the supply of oxygen is as exhaustless as the air, of which it 
forms one-fifth part, yet not a surplus atom of oxygen enters 
into the process of combustion. There are two compounds 
of oxygen with carbon. One atom of oxygen unites with one 
atom of carbon, or two atoms of oxygen unite with one 
atom of carbon. Never an atom and a half of oxygen with 
an atom and a half of carbon. The union of these two ele- 
ments is exact, entire and always the same under all circum- 
stances. All this is very elementary, but to those who have 
not studied chemistry, it may be entirely new, and a knowl- 
edge of these underlying facts is essential to an intelligent 
management of fuel. And it is to be hoped that progress 
will be made in this most important matter. 

MAKING SASH WEIGHTS OUT OF TIN CANS. 
The latest use for tin cans, and the chips from the tin 
shops, is the conversion of the material into sash weights. 
There is no secret about the process. The only thing is to 
have a proper sized furnace, and to get up a sufficient heat. 
The business has developed of late, but the manufacturers 
say the margin of profit is small. It costs more to melt the 
scraps than common iron. Chips ready for the furnace cost 
seven dollars a ton. The sash weights produced are of a 
superior quality. The business is, like the case of old 
rubber, an illustration of the use of waste material. The 
tin can companies, and other manufacturers of tin goods, 
formerly dumped hundreds of tons into space, but now these 
scraps are utilized, and the irrepressible small boy works the 
ash fields to his profit in companionship with the blithesome 
goat. 



175 

STEAM POWER OF THE WORLD. 

Four-fifths of the engines now working in the world 
have been constructed during the last twenty-five years. 
France owns 49,590 stationary and locomotive boilers, 7,000 
locomotives and 1,850 boats' boilers ; Germany has 59,000 
boilers, 10,000 locomotives and 1,700 ships' boilers; 
Austria, 12,000 boilers and 2,800 locomotives. The force 
equivalent to the working steam engines represents : In 
the United States 7,500,000 horse power, in England 
7,000,000 horse power, in Germany 4,500,000, in France 
3,000,000, and in Austria 1,500,000. In these figures the 
motive power of the locomotives is not included, whose 
number in all the world amounts to 105,000, representing a 
total of 3,000,000 horse power. Adding this amount to the 
other powers we obia-n the total of 46,000,000 horse power. 
A steam horse pov/er is equal to three actual horses' power ; 
and a living horse is equal to seven men."" The steam 
engines of the world represent, therefore, approximately the 
work of 1,000,000,000 men, or more than double the work- 
ing population of the earth, whose total population amounts 
to 1,455,923,000 inhabitants. Steam has accordingly treb- 
led man's working power, enabling him to economize his 
physical strength while attending to his intellectual develop- 
ment. 



LOCOMOTIVE BOILER CONSTRUCTION. 

Locomotive boiler construction has made some progress, 
especially in devices for burning inferior coals, such as dust 
and slack, and further improvements may be expected. It 
is in the fire-box and boiler that we look for the largest per- 
centage of gain in the future. The average coal-burning 
boiler used upon American roads is at best not an economical 
device. The average amount of steam evaporated from a 
given amount of coal burned is usually, in a locomotive 
boiler, only one-half of what a perfect utilization of the 
heating properties of the coal should accomplish. It can be 
readily seen how large a margin there is for saving in this 
direction, and a little study of the principles of soft -coal 
burning should result in improved construction and increased 
economy. oWe expect the next twenty-five years to show as 
great an advance in this part of locomotive practice as the 
last quarter century has in other directions. The coal bill 
being one of the largest expenses upon a road, its reduction 
is a matter of much importance. 



176 
STEP BEARINGS FOR VERTICAL SHAFTS. 

Probably no bearing around a steam plant demands so 
much attention from the engineer as the step bearing. They 
are invariably the source of much annoyance, and in many 
cases are the direct cause of costly stoppages to cool them 
off or makerepairs. Yet, as important as bearings are, there 
is no part of millwrighting that has received so little atten- 
tion from either builders or designers. 

We find to-day the same designs as were made years ago; 
as important and simple as this thing is, coupled with the 
experience of those who have used them, few have ever 
written a line upon this subject. 

The reason that step bearings give so much trouble, and 
seem to be almost incurable, is from the fact that they gen- 
erally have to do about three times the work to the square 
inch that any other bearing performs, which naturally leaves 
■ the margin of safety a very small one for varying conditions. 

^ In large mills it is a common thing to find these step? carry- 

ing anywhere from six to seven hundred pounds to the square 
^ inch on their surfaces, and when we consider that the tend- 

^ ency of the revolving surface of the shaft is to throw the oil 

off at a tangent, we see very clearly that the slightest defect in 
the lubrication or any change of temperature, gives a hot box, 
which, when it does start, generally begins smoking before 
the mill can be brought to a standstill. In some cases, where 
the faces begin cutting before the shaft can be stopped, it is 
generally necessary to jack the whole shaft up and clean off 
the bottom, which, as every engineer and millwright knows, 
is a job to be avoided, especially when the mill is waiting to 
go ahead. 

I We have ourselves been in places where everything from 

^ plumbago down to castor oil was tried without avail. 

We were called in to doctor such a case in a white lead 
^ works a few months ago, and take pleasure in submitting the 

"■ remedy to our readers, as it may help some of them out of a 

bad job. ^The shaft in question was eight inches in diameter, 
^ and about fifty feet high; it was, like its brethren, a constant 

^ source of annoyance; everything had been tried, and smoke 

- she would, sometimes firing the oil in the box. The remedy 

i we employed was simple and effective; we had a number of 

Ikin plates of steel cut to the diameter of the shaft, nicely 
^ beveling the edges, and straightening them up, and placed 

^. them in a pile on the bottom of the box, and lowered the 

^ shaft do\^'n into the box on top of them, filled the box with a 

^ good bodied oil, and from that day to this that box has given 



177 

no trouble, and runs as cool as any bearing in the mill. As 
will be seen at once, these plates are revolving sometimes 
with the shaft, and sometimes not, and, if one of them should 
stick to its neighbor, the next one to it will continue to 
revolve without extra friction, and so on; ultimately these 
plates become as smooth as glass, and receive a surface that 
the end of the shaft never will. Again, their elasticity en- 
ables them to conform to any change in position of the box 
itself. 

In the ordinary way, unless the shaft is perfectly vertical 
with the face of the box, there is trouble from the start 
until the end of the shaft, or the bottom of the box, are so 
cut as to bring them face to face. We recommend this 
plan to our readers ; it is a good one, and will seldom fail. 
Try it, 

LOCOMOTIVES IN 1832 AND^i888. 

The Baldwin Iron Works, of Philadelphia, in 1S32 con- 
sidered it a great feat that they had constructed an engine 
which could draw thirty tons on a level, and the papers of 
the day contained the following announcement: 

Notice. — The locomotive engine built by M. W. Bald- 
win, of this city, will depart daily, when the weather is fair, 
with a train of passenger cars. 

J^^On rainy days horses will be attached. 

Now the same works are constructing ten-wheeled con- 
solidated locomotives for the Dom Pedro Railway, in Bra- 
zil, guaranteed to draw 3,600 tons, with no reservation as to 
** weather." 

GOOD-BYE TO BELL ROPES. 

An electrical contrivance has been successfully tried on the 
Boston & Maine Railroad, which dispenses with the old-fash- 
ioned bell rope for signaling the engineer. We understand 
that the Boston & Maine Company has made tests of several 
electrical devices, and has lately hit upon one which gave sat- 
isfaction. Two wires lead from a gong in the locomotive 
cab the whole length of the train forming a continuous open 
circuit. By closing this circuit at any point in the train, the 
engineer's gong is made to ring. Ordinary push buttons in 
one end of each car serve to close the circuit, enabling signal- 
ing to be done from any part of the train. Really, this sys- 
tem seems to be practically the same as the open circuit sys- 
tem of electric bells used in nearly all oftices, manufacturing 
establishments and hot/^ls. 



178 
ECONOMY OF HIGH STEAM PRESSURE. 

Higher steam pressure being a matter of interest and 
discussion by railroad men at the present time, a few figures 
tending, perhaps, to settle doubts as to economy, or to 
modify extravagant ideas on the subject, may not be out of 
place. We will compare boilers carrying steam at 175 and 
125 pounds above the atmospheric pressure, with five pounds 
back pressure on the exhaust in each case. 

Authorities on the mechanical theory of heat give the 

T—T^ 
efficiency of a perfect engine, e= where T repre- 

sents the absolute temperature of the steam before doing its 
work and T\ after. Absolute temperature means reckon- 
ing from the point where there are absolutely no heat vibra- 
tions. Experiments locate this point at 460° below zero, so, 
to reduce to absolute temperatures, add this figure to the 

^ readings of a common thermometer. 

The temperature of steam at 175 pounds above the 

^ atmosphere is 378°, of 125 pounds 353^, and of 5 pounds 

1 228^. Reducing to absolute temperatures and substituting 

■ in the above formula, we have : 

' For engines using steam at 175 pounds : 

; 838 — 6%Z 

e== =0.1790 

838 

For engines using steam at 125 pounds : 
' 813 — 688 
\ ^= =0-1537 

: Difference in favor of 175 pounds, .0253, or about 2^ 

per cent. 
^ Say, engines using steam at 125 pounds burn, on an 

^ average, 150 tons of coal per month, or 1,800 tons per year. 

By using steam at 175 pounds, a saving would have been 
^ made of 45.54 tons per year. With coal at $1.90 per ton, 

^ this would have amounted to $86.53 P^^ engine. 

J A railroad having 800 locomotives, on the average, 

J v^uld save $69,224 per year. 

The efficiencies given above are for perfect engines, 
^ where there is no loss from radiation, imperfect expansion, 

^ friction, etc. ; but the practicability of using them for ordi- 

^ nary engines is apparent, if the engines are supposed to be 

Y equally imperfect. • 

Actually, the economy will be still greater in favor of 



179 

high pressure than these figures show, as a smaller cylinder 
for the same power can be used, and that means less area of 
condensation, and less friction at the piston head. 

RISE AND PROGRESS OF STEAM NAVIGATION. 

In fifty years steamships have increased in tonnage from 
67,969 tons to 4,318,153 tons, while their proportion to the 
total registered tonnage of British ships has increased from 
I to 41 to I to 2. 14. The first Cunarders were only 207 feet 
long and 34 feet 4 inches beam, while the first steamer which 
plied regularly between Liverpool and New York, the Royal 
William, measured only 175 feet in length. The steps by 
which the marine engine has developed have been, first, the 
screw propeller, then the introduction of iron and steel 
in the building of ships, then the increase of steam pressure 
in the boiler, then the adoption of surface condensation, 
followed by the use of compound and duplicate expansion 
cylinders, and a much larger increase in boiler pressure, ren- 
dered possible by the use of mild steel in the construction of 
boilers, have effected in all a reduction of 70 per cent, in the 
consumption of coal, and an increase of no per cent, in 
speed. 

NEW TRANSATLANTIC STEAMER. 

At the Glasgow Exhibition there is a model of a new 
steamer from Fairfield, and bearing a plate, stating that she 
has been " designed for the Guion Steamship Company, Lim- 
ited," to sail between " Queenstown and New York in five 
days. Length, 560 feet ; breadth, 63 feet ; depth, 52 feet ; 
tonnage, 11,500." She is a twin-screw steamer, has two 
masts and four funnels, her bridge being aft of the funnels? 
about So feet from the stern, while on the foremast is attached 
the " loolcout's " post. /We learn from a reliable source that 
the vessel has four decks, with accommodations for 1,000 
first-class passengers, a few second-class passengers, and a 
large number of " thirds. " She is divided into separate com- 
partments by seventeen bulkheads, four of them for the 
boilers. These are sixteen in number, and double-ended. 
Aft of the boiler spaces will be two sets of triple-expansion 
engines to drive the twin screws. These engines will be of 
enormous power. 



I So 
GOVERNMENT METAL TESTS. 

The Navy Department has recently made a series oF tests 
at Watertown, Mass., in order to determine the best metal 
to use for the screw propellers for the new war ships which 
are now being built. The results of these tests are given 
below in tabular form: 



ALUMINUM BRONZE AND BRASS. 



Bronze Composition: 

Copper and 8 per cent. Al. and Si. . . 
Copper and lo per cent. Al. and Si. . 
Copper and 8}^ per cent. Al. and Si. 
Copper and 7% per cent. Al. and Si. 
Copper and 7 per cent. Al. and Si. . . 
Copper and 8^ per cent. Al. and Si. . 
Copper and 9 per cent. Al. and Si — 
Copper and 10^ per cent. Al. and Si. 

Brass Composition. 

Copper and 3^ Al., 33^^ per cent. Zn, 
Copper and 3)^ Al., 33% per cent. Zn. 







Pounds 


Pounds 


Percent. 


tensile 


Elastic 


Elonga- 


strength 


limit. 


tion. 


per sq. in. 


19,000 


23-7 


58,500 


33,000 


3-2 


68,000 


18,000 


26 


61,000 


19,000 


9-3 


52,000 


17,000 


11.9 


46,000 


24,000 


T3.3 


66,500 


28,000 


4.5 


66,000 


33,000 


3.6 


72,500 


55,000 


X.6 


70,000 


65,000 


2.5 


82,500 



GOVERNMENT GUN BRONZE. 









Pounds 




Elastic 


Percent. 


tensile 




limit. 


Elonga- 


strength 






tion. 


per sq. m. 


Copper 88, tin 10, zinc 2, per cent 


9,000 


1.5 


18,000 


Copper 88, tin 10, zinc 2, per cent 


10,000 


2. 


18,000 


Copper 88, tin 10, zinc 2, per cent 


13,000 


3- 


20,000 


Copper 88, tin 10, zinc 2, per cent 


II,OCO 


5. 


22,500 


Copper 88, tin 10, zinc 2, per cent 


13,000 


1-5 


23,000 


Copper 88, tin 10, zinc 2, per cent . . . 


10,000 


3-5 


19,000 



T All bars were 22 inches in length hy iji inches in 

( diameter, and 10 inches or 15 inches between elonga- 

1 tion marks. The government gun bronze is the material 



i8i 

that has been used universally in both the army and navy 
departments in the construction of all bronze cannon, 
propeller wheels, gun carriages, etc., for the past fifty 
years. The Watertown testing machine is the most power- 
ful and accurate machine for testing the physical character- 
istics of material, such as strength, toughness, malleability, 
ductility, hardness, etc. , and these tests on bronze are the 
most severe and thorough ever made on brass and bronze 
anywhere, the bars being of extraordinary size and simple 
castings. The metal was only worked enough to get it into 
proper shape for accurate m.easurement, and had not been 
forged, rolled or drawn in any manner. These tests were 
made under the personal direction of Assistant Engineer in 
Chief Harris, of the bureau of steam engineering and con- 
struction of the navy department. 

A MAN WHO KNEW JAMES WATT. 

Many will be surprised to hear that a man who knew 
James Watt lived to see the dawn of the present year. This 
gentleman, Mr. Thomas Lockhart, who recently died in 
Glasgow, at the age of 97, had literally in a lifetime seen the 
virtual birth of the steam engine, and had witnessed its 
marvelous growth and the corresponding advance in all 
branches of mechanical engineering. The startling nature of 
this rapid progress is well illustrated by a remark in a letter 
of James Watt, where he observes that he had just made a 
piston that fitted the cylinder so truly that a half-crown 
could hardly be inserted between them at any point of the 
bore. As this coin is larger than a silver half dollar, the 
accuracy of workmanship in those days seems to belong to 
another age. And yet it has been compassed in the lifetime 
of one old man. It is said that Mr. Lockhart preserved a 
vivid impression of the great inventor, and was always 
pleased to recall the circumstances which brought them 
together. 

A NEW STEAM GENERATOR. 

A new steam generator in England is arousing a great 
deal of interest because of its great efficiency. It is run on 
the pressure instead of the draft principle. This obviates I he 
expensive tall chimneys and costly methods of firing now in 
use. It is simply done by forcing an increased amount of air 
into the fuel. 



l82 

THE WORKING STRENGTH OF BOILERS. 

The increase in the working pressure of steam boilers is 
becoming so general that our boiler-makers will do well to 
make sure that the old rules for construction are fully appli- 
cable to the new constitutions. 

Is it not time that there was a reconsideration of the 
whole subject of boiler pressures? As at present w^orked, 
steam boilers are constructed in a wastefully extravagant 
manner, and practice, as exemplified by the allowances of the 
boiler insurance companies, makes little or no difference in 
pressure allowance between a good boiler and a bad one. A 
steam boiler is either of iron or of steel in their eyes, and is 
calculated accordingly. Whatever may be the quality of the 
steel and its tenacity, the boiler made from it is simply a steel 
boiler, and generally too little attention is given to distin- 
guishing a good from a poor boiler. As a consequence, all 
boilers are treated as though of poor quality, and their pres- 
sure allowed accordingly. A common allowance is 
i3>^Xi,344X/'' 

P= 

T>.f' 
t and D being in inches and the boiler double riveted. 
When American practice is considered, this appears a very 
small allowance indeed. In some instances the United States 
Government rules allow of a working pressure higher than 
the hydraulic test pressure customary with us. The higher 
American limits are decidedly unsafe. Still, American prac- 
tice may teach us that our own boilers might safely be 
trusted to carry higher steam. Whatever may be said of 
the superiority of American iron, there cannot be claimed 
any superiority for their boiler steel. I think, therefore, 
that the working allowance should be materially increased 
20,000/ 

and would suggest P=- as no way excessive for a 

D 
boiler well made of a 27-ton steel of suitable ductility. This 
would give iii lbs. for a standard V^ in. Lancashire boiler 
7^ ft. in diameter. For such a boiler the United States 
rules would allow 134 lbs., whilst for a cargo boat on the 
Mississippi 140 lbs. would be allowed, and it does not appear, 
in this latter example, that the seams need be other than 
single riveted ! Scores of boilers have been removed of late 
years in Lancashire to make room for others a fourth 
stronger, which in America would be deemed amply strong 
for the enhanced pressure Is not this excessive caution a 



i83 

tax on our manufacturers from which they ought to be 
exempt.? High factors of safety were all very well at one 
time when so little was really known of the actual strength 
of metallic structure, but with the proved greater capacity 
of resisting steady as compared with a variable load, a steam 
boiler, above all other structures, maybe stressed with safety 
nearly to the elastic resistance of the material of which it is 
made. 

TRANSMISSION OF POWER BY WIRE ROPES. 

The size of rope and size and speed of wheels required to 
obtain any amount of power. 



0*^ 


No. of 
revolu- 
tions. 


.S 
P. ^ 


^ 


0^ 

5| 


^ 



D2 




4 


8o 


H 


3-3 


10 


80 


II-I6 


58.4 




loo 


Vs 


4.1 




100 


II-I6 


73. 




I20 


Vs 


5 




120 


II-I6 


S7.6 




140 


rs 


5.8 




140 


ii-i6 


102.2 


5 


80 


7-16 


6.9 


II 


80 


11-16 


75.5 




100 


7-16 


8.6 




100 


11-16 


94.4 




120 


7-16 


10.3 




120 


H-16 


113. 3 




140 


7-16 


12. 1 




140 


11-16 


132.1 


6 


80 


H 


10.7 


12 


80 


^ 


99.3 




100 


'A 


13-4 




100 


Ya. 


124 I 




120 


% 


16. 1 




120 


^ 


148.9 




140 


y^ 


18.7 




140 


% 


173.7 


7 


80 


9-16 


16.9 


13 


80 


H 


122.6 




100 


9-16 


21. 1 




100 


H 


153.2 




120 


9-16 


25.3 




120 


H 


183.9 


8 


80 


Vi 


22. 


14 


80 


% 


148. 




ICXD 


H 


27.5 




100 


% 


185. 




120 


y^ 


ZZ- 




120 


% 


222 


9 


80 


% 


41.5 


15 


80 


n I 


217. 




100 


H 


51.9 




100 


r» 


259. 




120 


% 


62.2 




120 


Vs 


300. 



i84 

U. S. AND FOREIGN MEASURES OF LENGTH COMPARED. 

U. S. Inches, 

U. S. and British Foot 12. 

Amsterdam " 1 1. 144 

Antwerp Fuss H-275 

Austria " 12.445 

Belgium Elle 39-371 

Brazil Cubit 25.98 

Bremen Fuss 11.38 

Brunswick " or Schuh 11.23 

China Chick (Commerce) . . 14. i 

Denmark Fod 12.357 

Egypt Derah 25.49 

Florence Braccio 22. 98 

Greece Cubit 18. 

India " 18. 

Japan Fan 12. + 

Mexico Pie 11.28 

Norway Fod 12.353 

Persia Arish 38.27 

Portugal Foot 13.33 

Prussia Fuss 12. 357 

Rome Pie (Commer) II-592 

Russia Foot 13-75 

Sardinia Oucia 1.686 

Sicily Palmo 9.53 

Spain Foot 11. 128 

Sweden Fot 33-3^4 

Switzerland (B'e.) Fuss 11.81 

(Geneva) " 23.028 

Turkey Pic (Great) 27.9 

Venice Pie 13-68 

INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT BOILERS. 

When a boiler is made, it is next to impossible for any 
inspection to detect the quality of the iron. In the sharp 
competition for business, a great deal of poor iron gets into 
boilers. It is cheaper, and the boiler can be sold for less 
money, and, with the improved machinery for flanging, drill- 
ing, punching and riveting, the poor quality of the material 
cannot be detected. But when subjected to the conditions 
of use, the frequent repairs soon convince the purchaser that 
his cheap boiler is a very expensive one after all. " Homo- 
geneous steel " is rapidly taking the place of wrought-iron 
for boiler construction. It is only a few years since this 



i8S 

material was thought fit for such use. Its early behavior 
was quite unsatisfactory, and provoked no little discussion, 
but, with the improved methods of manufacture, it is becoming 
recognized as one of, if not the best material for boiler 
shells. Its ductility and homogeneity are greatly in its 
favor. These qualities adapt it to the strains caused by the 
varying conditions of heat, and, being rolled from an ingot, 
it is almost absolutely free from laminations, and conse- 
quently from blisters when subjected to heat. We have oc- 
casion to test specimens of steel of the different makers. 
The results of tests of twelve specimens from one maker 
recently made show tensile strength ranging from 58,210 to 
64,329 lbs., with a reduction of area at point of fracture in 
the first instance of 58/0^0 P^^ cent., and in the latter of 
6oT^fo per cent. In another case where six tests were made, 
all from the same maker, the highest were 57,900 and 55,020 
lbs., with a reduction of area for the former ^f 551-0 P^^* 
cent., and for the latter of 58^-0 per cent. Elongation in 8 
inches, for the former 25-1^- per cent., and for the latter 
263-0 per cent. I regard these as remarkably good steels. 
We have the records of many other tests, but this will be 
sufficient to show how a good steel should behave under 
test. I will say here that the company which I represent 
has nearly 20,000 boilers under its care, among which are 
several thousands made of steel, and, as a whole, they are 
doing excellent service. We have watched them for several 
years under the conditions of use, which is the best test, 
and as a result I can confidently recommend good steel as an 
excellent material for boilers. But I will say here that there 
is a liability to get a cheap steel. Hence we are liable to 
have the same trouble that was spoken of in regard to iron. 
The only safe way is to secure pieces of coupons from the 
plates before the boiler is made, and subject them to test. 

There has been considerable discussion in regard to t|fc 
different methods of riveting boiler plates together, that is, 
as to which is best — hand-riveting or machine-riveting. I 
should say both may be very good and both may be very 
bad. Hand-riveting is so well understood that little need 
be said about it. In both, the size of rivet-hole and the 
rivet should be adapted to the thickness of plate. The most 
perfect joint is that where the strength of the net section of 
plate (after the holes are punched) is nearly equal to the 
shearing stress of the rivets. The usual method of laying 
out rivet holes for double riveted joints is to pitch them, or 
put them, apart from center to center 2 inches or 2^ inches. 
If a ^-inch rivet is used, requiring a 13-16-inch hole, it will 



i86 

be found that so much of the plate has been cut away that 
the strength of the net section remaining will be only about 
half that of the shearing stress of the rivets. This is wrong; 
the rivets should have a wider pitch. To this, many boiler- 
makers will object, claiming that with wide pitches they can- 
not make a tight joint. The trouble probably is that the 
rivet holes are not laid out so as to come fair, hence a 
" drift -pin " must be used, and the plate becomes buckled 
and the joint leaks. If the work is well laid out and well 
done, there will be no trouble. A drift-pin should never 
be used to bring holes fair that ride one over the other. 
Suppose we wish to rivet a joint of ^-inch plates with 
^-inch rivets ; what should the pitch be ? For a double- 
riveted joint, we would punch or drill the holes 13-16 of an 
inch in diameter, and pitch them from center to center 3X 
inches. We would also pitch the rivet lines i^ inches 
apart. This would give a strong joint and a tight joint if 
the work was well done. 

Now about machine riveting. One of the great diffi- 
culties is the careless handling of material to be riveted. 
It is sometimes hung up by a rope or chain running over a 
pulley, and raised or lowered so as to bring the rivet holes in 
a line with the axis of the steam piston which drives the 
rivet. If the center of the hole and the axis of the driving 
piston do not coincide, the rivet will be imperfectly driven. 
In the better class of riveting machines, there are two pis- 
tons, one within the other. The outer one moves first, and 
holds the plate in place, and the other follows and drives 
the rivet. It is the careless way in which the work is done 
that has brought discredit on machine riveting. Much 
could be said on this subject, but time will not permit. 

.. A NEW TYPE OF BOILER. 

A new type of boiler has been subjected to tests that 
have given satisfactory results, on the passenger steamers 
plying on the river Seine, at Paris. The distinguishing 
feature of the boiler is, that it is composed of a series of in- 
clined tubes, placed in groups of three each. These inclined 
tubes forma kind of triangular pyramid with a vertical base 
and a horizontal axis. At the apex, these three tubes are 
brought into communication with one another by entering a 
sort of box. \t the base, they are inserted into the vertical 
sides of a chamber that is called the vertical collector, which 
receives the bases of six or eight of the pyramids, forming a 
series. Several of these series, put together, form a boiler. 



HOW TO USE PETROLEUM FOR FUEL SAFELY. 

The hazards attendmg the use of petroleum as fuel are 
largely of a controllable nature, and are dependent almost 
entirely upon the precautions taken in regard to its storage 
and use. 

The tanks should be of iron, placed upon solid founda- 
tions, and fitted with tight covers provided with ventilating 
pipes for the removal of any vapor passing off from the oil. 

The tanks should be situated where they will not 
constitute an exposure to the building in case of fire. It is 
very desirable that the main tank, at least, if not above 
ground, should be surrounded by a pike or embankment, 
inclosing a space sufficiently large to accomiT»odate the whole 
contents of the tank without overflow. 

There should be tv/o tanks ; the main tank being placed 
where it could receive the supply discharged ^from the tank 
cars by gravity, whence it may be pumped into the smaller 
or distributing tank which feeds the oil directly to the 
burners. 

An overflow-pipe in the distributing tank should be 
placed so as to discharge any excess of oil back into the 
reservoir tank. 

Pipes should be placed underground as far as possible ; 
the various connections should be supplied with valves for 
cutting off the flow of oil when desired. 

If the oil is admitted to the burners before a flame is 
placed in the furnace, flashes or explosions are almost sure 
to follow, and it is absolutely necessary for safety that a 
burning torch or other flame be placed in the furnace before 
the oil is let on to the burners. 

The above requirements may be modified as needed, 
according to the circumstances pertaining to the use of oil 
fuel for metal working and other purposes. 

COST OF COAL TO RAILROADS. 

The coal bills of railroad companies amount to from 9 to 
12 per cent, of the total operating expenses. It has been 
estimated that if this item of cost could be reduced one-half, 
net earnings could be considerably increased. It has been 
estimated that the locomotives of this country last year burned 
24,000,000 tons of coal, of which only 3 per cent of actual 
power stored up in coal was utilized. Inventors are at work 
trying to devise some method by which the coal bills can be 
reduced one-half. 



THE NEW ATLANTIC LINERS. 



The greatest interest attaches to the new ships of 
the Inman Line, " City of New York " and " City of Paris." 
The first is already launched, and is the largest modern 
vessel afloat. She is 560 feet long, 6^ feet beam, 43 feet 
deep, and 10,500 tons capacity ; proportion of beam to 
length, 8.89. 

The " City of New York " and her companion are to be 
propelled by twin screws. • Twin screws have been adopted 
for war ships, and in several merchantmen, but none of the 
first-class Atlantic liners have double propellers. The 
propellers are supported by massive steel stays, each of 
which is a casting weighing 26 tons. 

The machinery consists of two sets of engines of the three- 
crank triple-expansion type, having piston valves throughout, 
each set capable of exerting sufficient power to propel the 
vessel at four-fifths of her maximum speed, so that, should one 
set break down, no serious delay will take place, for the vessel 
will go at a speed of sixteen knots instead of nineteen knots 
per hour. The dimensions of the engines and boilers must 
be omitted. 

The auxiliary engines of the vessels number thirty-seven, 
the majority of which are driven by hydraulic power. For 
hoisting cargo, hydraulic machinery is supplied. The rattle 
of steam winches will be absent, and those who have tried 
to sleep on board a steamer the night before departure will 
appreciate this change. Hoists for many other purposes 
are fitted in vessels, such as lifting food from the galleys to 
the pantries, the stores from the store-room to the galleys, 
the engineers and firemen from the bottom of the vessel to 
the different levels on which they are to work, and the ashes 
are also hoisted from the boiler-rooms to the main deck, 
and put through a tube lo the sea without any noise. In 
all there are ten hydraulic hoists and twelve hydraulic derricks. 
The steering of the vessels is also effected by hydraulic power, 
actuated by a powerful ram capable of developing a thrust 
of eighty tons. 

^ The rudder fitted to these vessels is of a novel descrip- 
tion recently patented by Messrs. Thomas & Bilesv-. It has 
been designed in the first place for use in war ships, where it 
is a \'ital consideration to keep the whole of the steering 
gear below water. The rudder is formed so as to be a con- 
tinuation of the lines of the vessel. It is a structure built 
up of steel plates and angle bars, and of sufficient strength to 
resist the heavy strains that will come upon it on account of 






i89 

its large area of 250 square feet, a surface greater than has 
yet been adopted even in ships of war. The strains upon 
the rudder and steering gear will, however, be greatly 
reduced on account of a part of the surface being on the 
forward side of the axis of the pintles. The machinery for 
turning this rudder is on the hydraulic principle, and consists 
essentially of two hydraulic rams, which are placed one ork 
each side of an ordinary tiller. The plungers of these rams 
work at right angles to the tiller, and are connected to a 
block which can slide backward and forward upon the arm 
of the tiller. Thus, while the rams have a simple recipro- 
cating motion, the tiller has a corresponding angular motion, 
which is transmitted to the rudder by a massive connecting- 
rod connected by a simple pin joint to a short tiller on the 
rudder head. In designing the steering arrangements for 
these vessels, it has been considered desirable Jto make thero 
thoroughly efficient for war purposes. 

THE MARINE BRAKE. 
A marine brake has been invented by M. Pagan, and 
was recently tested on the Seine. It consists of a cable hav- 
ing attached to it a series of canvas cones which open out by 
the action of the water, and exert an enormousretarding force 
on the vessel. Thus the steamer Corsaire, running at a 
speed of thirteen knots, was stopped by this appliance in 
seven seconds, thirty-four seconds being required when b^e 
stopped by reversing the engines without making use of the 
brake. 

Economical Lubricators — i. India rubber, 2 lbs. ; dis- 
solved in spirrits turpentine; common soda, 5 lbs. ; glue, ^ 
lb. ; water, 5 gals. ; oil, 5 gals. Dissolve the soda and glue 
in the water by heat, add the oil, and then the dissolved rub- 
ber. 

2. To Lessen Friction in Machinery — Grind together 
black lead with four times its weight of lard or tallow. Cam- 
phor is sometimes added, 7 lbs to the hundred weight. 

3. Anti-Friction Grease — Tallow, 50 lbs. ; palm oil, 35 
lbs. ; boil together; when cooled to 80^, strain through a 

% sieve, and mix with 14 lbs. soda and 3 gals, water. 

4. Booths s Rail-way Axle Grease — Water, i gal. ; clean 
tallow, 3 lbs. ; palmoil, 6 lbs ; common soda j^ lb. ; or 
tallow 2 lbs. ; palm oil, 10 lbs. Heat to about 212^, and 
stir well until it cools to 70^. 

5. Drill Lubricator — For wrought iron, use i lb. soft 
soap mixed with one gal. of boiling water. 



190 

WEIGHT AND APNEAS OF 

SQUARE & ROUND BARS OF WROUGHT IRON 

And Circumference of Round Bars. 

One cubic foot weighing 480 lbs. 



d 



TUcknass 


Weight a 


Veight 0/ 


irea of 


imii< 


CUwrnrfSwira 


r Kamster 


QB" 


B** 


□ b« 


Bar 


of ^ 


ralaclws. 


0:id Foot leaf. 


One Foot long 


19 sq. iucUes. 


m sq, inchfls. 


Inindusi i 





.013 


.010 


.0039 


.0031 


.1963 


.052 


.041 


.0156 


.0123 


.3927 


I 


.117 


.092 


.0352 


.0276 


.58i90 


} 


.208 


.164 


.0625 


.0491 


.7854 


tI 


.326 


.256 


.0977 


.0767 


.9817 


i 


.469 


.368 


.1406 


.1104 


1.1781 


I 


.638 


.501 


.1914 


.1503 


1.3744 


i ■ 


.833 


.654 


.2500 


.1963 


1.5708 


ft 


1.055 


.828 


.3164 


.2485 


1.7671 


f 


1.302 


1.023 


.3906 


.3068 


1 9635 


fJ 


1.576 


1.237 


.4727 


.3712 


2 1598 


} 


1.875 


1 473 


.5625 


.4418 


2 3662 


ff 


2.201 


1.728 


.6602 


.5185 


2.5526 


Y 


2.552 


2.004 


.7656 


.6013 


2.7489 


ft 


2.930 


2.301 


.8789 


.6903 


2.9452 


1 ' 


3.333 


2.618 


1.0000 


.7854 


3.1416 


■^i 


3.763 


2.955 


1.1289 


.8866 


3.3379 


Vj 


4.219 


3.313 


1.2656 


.9940 


3 5343 


J 


4.701 


3.692 


1.4102 


1 1075 


3.7306 


a1 


5.208 


4.091 


1.5625 


1.2272 


3.9270 


5.742 


4.510 


1 7227 


1 3530 


4 1233 


i< 


6.302 


4.950 


1.8906 


1 4849 


43197 


i^ 


6.888 


5.410 


a*QQ64 


1.6230 


4.5160 


i* 


7.500 


5.890 


2.2500 


1 7671 


4 7124 


t'j 


8.138 


6.392 


2.4414 


1.9175 


4.9087 


1 


8.802 


6.913 


2.6406 


2.0739 


5.1051 


H 


9.492 


7.455 


2.8477 


2.2365 


5.3014 


1 


10.21 


8.018 


3.0625 


2 4053 


5.4978 


M 


10.95 


8.601 ^ 


3.2852 


2.5802 


5.6941 


i 


11.72 


9.204 


3.5156 


2.7612 


5.8905 


il 


12.51 


9.828 


3.7539 


2.9483 


&^m& 



191 
SQUARE AND ROUND BARS. 

(CONTINUED.) 



WoknesB 


Weight of 


Weight of 


Area of 


lre»of 


Circnnifaranc* 


or Diameter 


QBar 


O Bar 


QBar 


O Bar 


of O Bar 


in Inches. 


One Foot long. 


One Foot long. 


in sq, inches. 


iB Bcj. inches. 


in inches. 


2 


13.33 


10.47 


4.0000 


3.1416 


6.2832 


A 


14.18 


11.14 


4.2539 


3.3410 


6.4795 


i 


15.05 


11.82 


4.5156 


3.5466 


6.6759 


I 


15.95 


12.53 


4.7852 


3.7583 


6.8722 


i 


16.88 


13.25^ 


5.0625 


3.9761 


7.0686 


A 


17.83 


14.00 


5.3477 


4.200a 


7.2649 


A 


18.80 


14.77 


5.6406 


4.4301 


7.4613 


JL9.80 


15.55 ^ 


5.9414 


4.6664 


7.65^6 


i 


20.83 


16.36 


6.2500 


- 4.9087 


7.8540 


A 


21.89 


17.19 


6.5664 


5.1572 


8.0503 


¥ 


22.97 


18.04 


6.8906 


5.4119 


8.2467 


i* 


24.08 


18.91 4 


7.2227 


5.6727 


8.4430 


i 


25.21 


19.80 


^ 7.5625 


5.9396 


8.6394 


ft 


26.37 


20.71 


7.9102 


6.2126 


8.8357 


/ 


27.58 


21.64 


8.2656 


6.4918 


0.0321 


H 


2i3.76 


22.59 


8.6289 


0.7771 


9.2284 


3 


30.00 


23.56 


9.0000 


7.0686 


9.4248 


t 


31.26 


24.55 


9.3789 


7.3662 


9.6211 


82.56 


25.57 


9.7656 


7.6699 


9.8178 


A 


33.87 


26,60 


10.160 


7.9798 


10.014. 


i 


35.21 


27.65 


10.563 


8.2958 


io.2ia 


36,58 


28.73 


10.973 


8.6179 


10.407 


i 


37.97 


29.82 


11.391 


8.9462 


10.603 


39.39 


30.94 


11.816 


9,2806 


10.799 


1 


40.83 


32.07 


12.250 


9.6211 


10.996 


42.30 


33.23 


12.691 


9.9678 


11.192 


43.80 


34.40 


13.141 


10.321 


11.388 


ii 


45^3 


35J80 


13.598 


10.680 
11.045 


11.586 


\ 


46.88 


36.82 


14.063 


11,781 


ii 


48.45 


38,05 


14.535 


11.416 


11.977 


i 


50.05 


39.31 


15.01a 


11.793 


12.174 


ii i 


-.51.68 j 


40.59 


15.504 


12.177 


12.370 



192 



SQUARE AND ROUND BARS. 

(CONTINUED.) 



Thickness 


Teighl of 


Ve:?bt of 


ArPA of 


irea of 


-r DiasjfUr 


D«" 


^^\ 


fjB^ 


Bar 


in Inches. 


One Foot long. 


One J'oot long. 


in S4. inches. 


in sq. inches. 


4 


53.33 


41.89 


16.000 


12.566 




56.01 


43.21 


16.504 


12.962 


V 


' 56.72 


44.55 


17.016 


13.364 


A 


58.46 


45.91 


17.535 


13.772 




60.21 


47.29 


18.063 


14.186 


^Z 


61.99 


48.69 


18.598 


14.607 


4 

t's 


63.80 


50.11 


19.141 


16.033 


65.64 


51.55 


19.691 


16.466 


h 


67.50 


53.01 


20.250 


16.904 


t's 


69.39 


54.50 


20.816 


16.349 


i 


71.30 


^56.00 


21.391 


16.800 


H 


73.24 


57.62 


21.973 


17.257 


i 


75.21 


59.07 


22.563 


17.721 


il 


77.20 


60.63 


23.160 


18.190 


i 


79.22 


62.22 


23.766 


18.665 


it 


81.26 


63.82 


24.379 


19.147 


5 


83.33 


65.45 


25.000 


19.635 


tV 


85.43 


67.10 


25.629 


20.129 


J 


87.55 


68.76 


26.266 


20.629 


A 


89.70 


70.45 


26.910 


21.135 


i 


91.88 


72.16 


27.563 


21.648 


A 


94-08 


73.89 


28.223 


22.166 


,f 


96.30 


75.64 


28.891 


22.691 


.V 


98.55 


77.4^ 


29.566 


23.221 


1 


100.8 


79.19' 


30.250 


23.758 


^ 


103,1 


81.00 


30.941 


24.301 


1 


105.5 


82.83 


31.641 


24.850 


ii 


107.8 


84.69 


32.348 


25.406 


1 


110.2 


86.56 


33.063 


25.967 


u 


112.6 


88.45 


33.785 


26.535 


i 


115.1 


90.36 


34.516 


27.109 


H 


117.f 


92.29 


35.254' 


27.688 



Cim ffl f erra o 
of O fi"" 
in inches. 

12.566 
12.763 
12.959 
13.165 

13.352 
13.548 
13.744 
13.941 

14.137 
14.334 
14.53a 
14.726 

14.923 
15.119 
16.315 
15.612 

15708 
15.904 
16.101 
16.297 

16.493 
16.690 
16.886 
17.082 

17.279 

17.475 
17.671 
17.868 

18.064 

.18.261 

18.457 

18.663 



193 
SQUARE AND ROUND BARS. 

(CONTINUED) 



Vpight of 

QBar 

Qua Foot long 



120.0 
122.5 
126.1 
127.6 



1^ 



i'- 



130.2 
132.8 
135.5 
138.1 

140.8 
143.6 
146.3 
149.1 

151.9 
154.7 
157.6 
160.4 

163.3 
166.3 
169.2. 
172.2 

175.2 
178.2 
181.3 

184.4 

187.5 
190.6 
193.8 
197.0 

^00.2 
203.5 
206.7 
210.0 



Weight of 

O B" 
Odo foot long. 



94.25 
96.22 
98.22 
100.2 

102.3 
104.3 
106.4 
108.5 

110.6^ 
112.7 1 
114.9 I 

119.3^ 
121.6 
123.7 
126.0 I 

128.3 I 
130.6 I 
132.9 . 

135.2 J 

137:^f; 
140.0 
142.4 
•144.8 . 

147.3 ' 
149.7 
152.2 

^^-■^ 

157.2 
159.8 
162.4 
164.9 ; 



Am of 


Arna of 


QBar . 


O Bar 


in sq. laches. 


in sq. inchos> 


36.00O 


28.274 


36.754 


28.866 


37.516 


29.465 


38.285 


30.069 


39.063 


30.680- 


39.848 


31.296 


40.641 


31.919 


41.441 


32.548 


42.250 


33 183 


43.066 


33.824 


43.891 


34.472 


44.723 


35.125 




.^»^-.- ■■ -. 


45.563 


35785 


46.410 


36.450 


47.266 


37.122 


48.129 


37.800 


49.000 


38.485 


49.879 


39.175 


50.766 


39.871 


,51.660 


40.574 


52.563 


41.282 


53.473 


41.997 


54.391 


42.718 


65.316 


43.446 


56.250 


44.179 


57.191 


44.918 


58.141 


45.664 


59.098 


46.415 


60.063 


47.173 


61.035 


47.937 


62.016 


48.707 


63.004 


49.483 



CircumfereoM 
of O Bar. 
in inches. 

18.850 
19.046 
19.242 
19.439' 
^-. \ 
19.635! 
19.83li 
20.028 
20.224. 

20.420 
, 20.617 
' 20.813 

21.009 

21.206 

21.402 

21.698 

.21,79^ 

-22.187; 
22.384 
22.68a 

22.777- 
22.973-^ 
23.16^ 
23.366 
^ - i 
23.662 
23.75» 
23.96& 
24.1511 
• .^ 4 

24.347] 
24.544 
24.740 
2^.930" 



194 



SQUARE AND ROUND BARS. 

(continued.) 



'TkKkness 


ViMl of 


Weight of 


Area of 


Am of -^ 


(Sreumfereno 


«r Diameter 


Qbu 


O Bar 


nSar 


O Bar 


of O Bar. 


i ia Inches. 


One Foot long 


One fool long. 


in sq. inches. 




ia iB^egi 


8 


4 213.3 


167.6 


64.000 


50.265 


25.133 


SVI 


1 216.7 


: 170.2 


65.004 


51.054 


25.329 


"1 


1220.1 


172.8 


66.016 


51.849 


25.525 


'T«;rl 


\ 223.5 


1 175.5 


67.035 


52.649 


25.722 




: ^ 


■ ^^-.^ 


^^^. -..v^ 


> --... 


P- - ■ 


■vi--- ■ ■ ■ .-■- 




\ 


f226.9/ 


1178.21 


68.063 


53.458 


25.918 




h 


1 23§;8 


180.9 ;: 


69.098 


54.269 


26.114 






183.6 \ 


70.141 


65.088 


26.311 




1 237.3 . 


: 186.41 


^■'^' 


55.914 


26.507 




1240.8 


. 189.2 1 


72.250 


56.745 


26.704 




h% 


^ 244.4 


191.9 1 


73.316 


67.583 


26.9QP 




H 


248.0 


194.8 1 


74.391 


58.426 


27.096 




«i 


1261.6 


: 197.61 


.75.473 


, 69.276 


27.293 

-4. 


f 


455.2^ 


200.4t 


'76.563 


60.132 


27.489 


[tV| 


258.9 


203.3 1 


77.660 


60.994 


27.685 


/| 


t 262.6 : 


206.2 1 


78.766 


61.862 


27.882 


HI 


4266.31 


209.1 1 


.79.879 


62.737 


28078 


/^ 


W ^ 


212 1^ 
1 215.0 1 
f 218.0 1 
1221.0^ 


p^-??^^.. ■ -^■* 


-■■ 


^ ^ 


9 


1 270.0 


81.000 


63.617 


28.274 


v^l 


1 273.8 


82.129 


64.504 


28.471 


if 


1 277.6 


83.266 
84AlO 


65.397 


28.667 


Al 


1 281.4. 


66.296 


28.863 




N 


W'^ 


p^ ^^ 


• -:.:-.:^^ 


V -^^ 


4 




T^ 


f285.2^ 


1224.0^ 


85.563 


67.201 


29.060 






'280.1 ^ 


'^ 227.0 


86.723 


68.112 


29.256 




1 J 


% 293.0 


t 230.1 


87.891 


69.029 


29.452 




Al 


1296.9 
^00.8 


1 233.2 


89.066 


69.953 


29.649 




L 


' 236.3 


90.250 


70.882 


29.845 




1 304.8 


239.4 


91.441 


71.818 


30.041 






1 308.8 


£ 242.5 


92.641 


72.760 


30.238 




fji 


|312.8 


1 245.7: 


93.848 


73.708 


30.434 




f. 


l^.- -^ 


^^ 


^■.. 


■r ■'■« 




f 


1316.9 


248.9 


95.063 


74.662 


30.631 


'?! 


|321.0 
1 325.1 
1 329.2 


252.1 


96.285 


75.622 


30.827 


255.3 


97.516 


76.589 


,31.023 




W 


258.5 


98.754 


77.561 


'31.220 



195 



SQUARE AND ROUND BARS. 

(CONUINUED.) 



•^r-' — — 

Weight of 
Ona Foot long. 



333.3 
337.5 
341.7 
346.0 

350.2 
354.5 
358.8 
863.1 

367.5 
371.9 
376.3 
380.7 

385.2 

389.7 
394.2 
398.8 

^■ - - * 

403.3 
407.9 
412.6 
417.2 

421.9 
426.6 
431.3 
436.1 

440.8 
445.6 
450.5 
455.3 

460.2 
465.1 
470.1 
476.0 



Weight of 

O Bar 

Ono Foot long. 



261.8 
265.1 
268.4 
271.7 

275,1 
278.4 
281.8 
285.2 

288.6 
292.1 
295.5 
299.0 

302.5 
306.1 
309.6 
313.2 

316.8 
320.4 
324.0 
327.7 

331.3 
335.0 
338.7 
342.5 

346.2 
350.0 
353.8 
357.6 

861.4 
365.3' 
369.2 
373.1 



Am of 


JLreaof 


QBar 


O Bar 


ia sq. inciiea. 


in sq. inches. 


100.00 


78.540 


101.25 


79.525 


102.52 


80.516 


103.79 


81.513 


105.06 


82.516^ 


106.35 


83.525 


107.64 


84.541 


108.94 


85.562 



110.25 
111.57 
112.89 
114.22 

115.66 
116.91 
118.27 
119.63 

121.00 
122.38 
123.77 
126.16 

126.56 
127.97 
129.39 
130.82 

132.25 
133.69 
135.14 
136.60 

138.06 
139.54 
141.02 
142.60 



86.590 
87.624 
88.664 
89.710 

90.763 
91.821 

92.886 
93.956 

95.033 
96.116 
97,205 
98.301 

99.402 
100.51 
K)1.62 
102.74 

103.87 
105-00 
106.14 
107.28 

108.43 
109.59 
110.75^ 
111.9iS* 



CircumfcTQiux 
of O Bar 

in mehas. 



31.416 
31.612 
31.809 
32.005 

32.201 
32.398 
32.594 
32.790 

32.987 
33.183 
33.379 
33.576 

33.772 
33.968 
34.165 
34.361 

34.568 
34.764 
34.950 
35.147 

35.343 
35.539 
36.736 
35.932 

36.128 
36.325 
36.521 
36-717 

36.914 

f 7.110 
7.306 
37,503 



196 

Weight of Sheets of Wrought Iron, Steel Cop- 
per and Brass. (From Haswell.) 

Weight per Square Foot. Thickness by Birmingham Gauge. 



Io.of 


Thickness 
in inches. 


Iron. 


Steel. 


Copper. 


Brass; 


0000 


.454 


18.22 


18.46 


20.57 


19.43 


lOOO 


.425 


17.05 


17.28 


19.25 


18.19 


^00 


.38 


15.25 


15.45 


17.21 


16.26 





.34 


13.64 


13.82 


15.40 


14.55 


1 


.3 


12.04 


12.20 


13.59 


12.84 


2 


.284 


11.40 


11.55 


12.87 


12.16 


3 


.259 


10.39 


10.53 


11.73 


11.09 


4 


.238 


9.55 


9.68 


10.78 


10.19 


'6 


.22 


8.83 


8.95 


9.97 


9.42 


e 


.203 


8.15 


8.25 


9.20 


8.69 


.7 


.18 


7.22 


7.32 


8.15 


7,70 


8 


.165 


6.62 


6.71 


7.47 


7.06 


/O 


.148 


5.94 


6.02 


6.70 


6.33 


10 


.134 


5.38 


5.45 


6.07 


5.74 


11 


L12 


4.82 


4.88 


5.44 


6.14 


12 


,109^ 


4.37 


4.43 


4.94 


4.67 


13 


.095 


3.81 


3.86 


4.30 


4.07 


14 


.083 


3.33 


3.37 


3.76 


a55 


(15 


a072 


2.89 


2.93 


3.26 


3.08 


(ie 


.065 


2.61 


2.64 


2.94 


2.78 


17 
18 


.058 


2.33 


2.36 


2.63 


2.48 


.049 


1.97 


1.99 


2.22 


2.10 


19 


.042 


vl.69 


1.71 


1.90 


1.80 


20 


.035 


1.40 


1.42 


1.59 


1.50 


21 


.032 


1.28 


1.30 


1.45 


1.37 


22 


.028 


1.12 


1.14 


1.27 


1.20 


(23 


.025 


.1.00 


1.02 


1.13 


1.07 


24 


.022 


\883 


.895 


1.00 


.942 


25 


.02 


.803 


.813 


.906 


.856 


^26 


.018 


C722 


.732 


.815 


.770 


27 


.016 


'.642 


.651 


.725 


.685 


.28 


.014 


'562 


.569 


.634 


.599 


29 


.013 


■^22 


.529 


.589 


.556 


30 


.012 


.482 


.488 


.544 


.514 


31 


,01 


'.401 


'.407 


.453 


.428 


32 


.009 


.361 


^.366 


. .408 


.385 


33 


.008 


.321 


.325 


.362 


.342 


34 


.007 


.281 


.285 


.317 


.300 


35 


.005 


.201 


.203 


.227 


.214 


^ecific G 
Weight C 


ravity, 


7.704 


7.806 


8.698 


8.218 


ubic Foot, 


481.25 


487.75 


543.6 


513.6 


H 


« Inch; 


.2787 


.2823 


.31^ 


.2972 



197 



Weight of Sheets of Wrought Iron, Steel, Cop- 
per and Brass. From Haswell. 

Weight per Square Foot. Thickness by American (Baown & 
Sharpe's) Gauge, 



. Gauge. 


Thickness 
in inches. 


Iron. 


Steel. 


Copper. 


Bras.' 


0000. 


.46 


18.46 


18.70 


20.84 


19.69 


000 


.4096 


16.44 


16.66 


18.56 


17.53 


00 


, .3648 


14.64 


14.83 


16.53 


15.61 





.3249 


13.04 


. 13.21 


14,72 


13,90 


1 


.2893 


11.61 


11.76 


13.11 


12.38 


2 


.2576 


10.34 


10.48 


11.67 


11.03 


3 


.2294 


9.21 


9.^3 


10.39 


9.82 


4 


.2043 


8,20 


8.31 


9.26 - 


8.74 


6 


.1819 


7.30 


7.40^ 


8.24 


7.79 


6 


.1620 


6.50 


6.59' 


7,34 


6.93 


7 


.1443 


5.79 


5.87 


6,54 


6.18 


8 


.1285 


5,16 


5.22 


5.82 


5.50 


9 


.1144 


459 


4.65 


5.18 


4.90 


10 


,1019 


4.09 


4.14 


4.62 


4.36 


11 


.0907 


3.64 


3.69 


4.11 


3.88 


12 


.0808 


3.24 


3.29 


3.66 


3.46 


13 


.0720 


2.89 


2.93 


3.26 


3.08 


14 


^ .0641 


2.57 


2.61 


2,90 


2.74 


15 


.0571 


2.29 


2.32 


2.59 


2.44 


16 


.0508 


2.04 


2.07 


2,30 


2,18 


17 


.0453 


1.82 


1.84 


2.05 


1.94 


18 


.0403 


1.62 


1.64 


1.83 


1.73 


19 


.0359 


1.44 


1.46 


1.63 


1.54 


20 


.0320 


1.28 


1.30 


1.45 


1.37 


21^ 


.0285 


1.14 


1.16 


1.29 


, 1.22 


22 


.0253 


1.02 


1.03 


1.15 


1I.O8 


23 


.0226 


.906 


.918 


1.02 


.966 


24 


.0201 


.807 


.817 


.911 


.860 


25 


.0179 


.718 


.728 


.811 


.766, 


26 ' 


.0159 


.640 


.648 


.722 


.682 


27 V 


.0142 


.570 


.577 


.643 


.608 


28 


.0126 


.507 


.514 


.573 


.541J 


29 


.0113 


.452 


.458 


.510 


.4821 


30 


.0100 


.402 


.408 


.454 


.4291 


31 ' 


.0089 


:358 


.363 


.404 


.382. 


32 


,0080 


.319 


.323 


.360 


.340; 


33 


.0071 


.284 


.288 


.321 


.303 


34 


.0063 


.253 


.256 


.286 


.270 


36 


.0056 


.225 


.22& 


.264 


^ ..240} 



I9S 

WEIGHTS OF FLAT ROLLED IRON PER 

LINEAL FOOT. 

For Thicknesses from 1-16 in. to 2 in., and 

Width from i in. to I2|4^ in. 

Iron weighing 4S0 lbs. per cubic foot. 



t5i:efaess 


1" 


lK"!lK^'|l^2'' 2H''\^2K'\2y^'' 


12^' 




208 


250 i .313' .3co .417 .409 .521' 573 


2.50 


.417 


521 1 .625. .72:* .^33 .935 1.C4 ' 1.15 


5.ca 


.625 


.Tell .933: 1.C9 lio 1,41 l.'o , 


1,72 


750 


.833 


1.04 15o 1.45 1,67 l,C-3 2 .3 


2.29 


10.00 


1.04 


1.30 ' 1.56 1.C2 2 C3 2 ?4 2 :0 


2.SG 


12.50 


1^ 


1.56 ' 1.S3 i 2.19 2.:; 2:1 


3.13 


3.44 


IS.CO 


1.46 


1.82 • 2.19 


2.55 2.92 3.25 


s:5 


4.01 


17.50 


1.67 


2.08 


2.50 


2.92 3.33 


3.75 


4.17 


4.58 


20.00 




1.88 


2.34 


2.S1 


323 3.75 


4.-' 


4.C9 


5.1G 


22.50 


2.08 


2.C0 


8.13 " 3.C5 4,17 4.09 


5.21 


5.73 


2o.oa 


1 


259 


2.86 


3.44 ; 4 01 4.,:3 5.16 


5.73 


e.zo 


27.50 


2.50 


3.1a 


3.75 4 OS 5,:0 5.63 


6.25 


6.88 


30.C0 


2.71 


339 


4.06 ' 4.74 5.42 ; 6.09 


6.77 


7.45 


82.50 


2.92 


3.C5 


4.33 ■. 5.10 5.53 : 6.53 


719 


8C2 


33.ca 


3.13 


3.91 


4.69 5.47 6.25 ' 7.03 


7.81 


8.59 


87.50 


3.33 


4.17 


5.00 5,53 6.67 i 7.50 


8.33 


9.17 


40.ca 


^^^ 
















3.M 


4.43 


5.31 6,20 7.03 7.07 


8.S5 


9.74 


42.50 


3.75 


^4.69 5.63 6.55 7.50 8.44 , 9.38 


10.31 


45.C0 




3.96 


;4.95 


1 5.94 6.93 7.92 8.91 1 9.90 


,10C9 


47.50 


4.17 


J521 


1 6i5 7i9 8.33 9.38 10.42 11.46 


50.00 


4.37 


5.47 


' 6.:0 ~ ■ : 5 ~5 9.S4 10.04 12.03 


52.50 


ii 


i58 


5.73 6.SS S :2 9.:~ 10.31 11.46 il2.60 


55.00 


It 


4.79 


5 99 7:;^ ^ -■ 9:5 ::.73 11.98 13.18 


57.50 


5.00 


6io Ti: s": :::j iiio 12.50 .13.75 


60.00 


^ 




*--^ . ' 




n 


b2\ 


6 51 ' 7.81 : 9:: 10 42 1:72 13 02 14 32 


62.50 


5.42 


6.77 \ 8.13 ■ 9 4= :: 53 12,19 13.54 14.90 


65.C0 


m 


5.63 


7.03 18.44 9.i4 r'i5 12.66 14.05,15.47 


67.50 


If 


5.83 


729 


8.75 10.21 11.07 13.13 14.55 16.04 


70.00 


itl 






1 






\1 


6.04 


7i5 


9,06 ;i0.57 12.05 13 59 15.10 


'16.6I 


72.50 


595 


7.81 1 9.SS '10.94 12.50 14.05 15.63 


17.19 


75.CO 


i'' 


6.46 


8 07 i 9^"^ " " 12.92 ,14.53 16.15 


1776 


77.50 


6.67 


8.33 10:. 


:333 


15.00 


il5.67 


13.33 


so.ca 



199 



WEIGHT OF FLAT ROLLED IRON PER 
LINEAL FOOT. 



(CONTINUED.) 



ThlclcTjess 
in Inches. 



>^. f 




f'" 1 


1 


• - 


"1 


^ 1 


V / 


\ 


3" 


3^' 


^%" 


3%- 


4- 


^VJ' 


^)i" 


4K" 


2.5()1 


.625 


m 


729 


.781 


833 


.885 


.938 


,990 


1.25 


1.35 


146 


1.56 


167 


1.77 


1.88 


1.98 


5.00' 


1.88 


2.03 


2.19 


234 


2 50 


2.66 


2.81 


2.97 


7.50 


2.50 


2.71 


2.92 


3.13 


3 33 


3.54 


3.75 


3.96 


10.00 


3 13 


3 39 


3.65 


3.91 


4 17 


4.43 


4.69 


^05 


12,50 


375 


406 


4^ 


4 69 


5 00 


5.31 


5 63 


5.94 


15.00 


4.38 


474 


5.10 


5.47 


5.83 


a.20 


6.56 


6.93 


17.50 


5.00 


5.42 


5.83 


6.25 


6.67 


7.08 


7.50 


7.92 


20.00 

'A 

22.50 


5.63 


6.09 


6.56 


7.03 


7.50 


7 97 


8 44 


8.91 


6.25 


6.77 


7.29 


7.81 


8.33 


8.85 


9 38 


9.90 


25.00 


6.88 


7.45 


8.02 


8.59 


9.17 


9.74 


10.31 


10.89 


27.50 


7.50 


8.13 


8.75 


9.38 


10.00 


10.63 


11.25 


11.88 


30.00 


8.13 


8.80 


9 48 


10.16 


10.83 


11.51 


12.19 


12.86 


32.50 


8.75 


9.48 


10.21 


10.94 


11.67 


12.40 


13.13 


13.85 


35.00 


9.38 


10.16 


10.94 


11.72 


12.50 


13.28 


14.06 


14.84 


37.50; 


10.00 


10.83 


11.67 


12.50 


13.33 


14.17 


15.00 


15.83 


40.00 '■ 
42.50 


10.63 


1151 


12.40 


13.28 


14. 1-7 


L5J)5 


15.94 


16.83 


11.25 


12.19 


13.13 


14.06 illOO 


15.94 


16.88 


17.81 


45.00 ■ 


11.88 


12.86 


13.85 


14.84 '15.8a 


1&82 


17.81 


18.80 


47.50 


12.50 


13.54 


14.58 


15.63 !l6.C7 


17.71 


18.75 


19.79 


50.00 


13.13 


14.22 


15.31 


16.41 17.50 


18.59 


19.C9 


20.78 


52.60 


13.75 


14 90 


16.04 


17.19 


18.33 


19.48 


20.63 


21.77 


55.00 


14.38 


15.57 


16.77 


17.97 


19.17 


20.36 


21.56 


22.76 


57.50 


15.00 


16.25 


17.50 


18.75 


20.00 


21.25 


22.50 


23.75 


6Q,00 


15.63 


16.93 


18.23 


19.53 


20.83 


22.14 


23.44 


24.74 


62.50 


16.25 


17.60 


18.96 


20.31 


21.67 


23.C2 


24.33 


25.73 


65.00 


16.88 


18-28 


19.69 


21.09 


22.50 


23.91 


25.31 


26.72 


C7.50 


17.50 


18.96 


20.42 


21.88 


23.S3 


24.79 


26.25 


27.71 


70.00 


18.13 


19.04 


21.15 


22.66 


24.17 


25.G8 


27.19 


23.70 


72.50 


18.75 


20.31 


21.88 


23.44 25.00 


26.56 


28.13 


29.C0 


75.00 


19.38 


20.99 


22.60 


24.22 25.-83 


27.45 


29.06 


30.G3 


77J)0 


20.00 


21.67 


23.33 


25.00 26.67 


28.33 


30.00 


31.G7 


CO.OO 


i 




I 


i 


. 









zoo 



WEIGHTS OF FLAT ROLLED IRON PER 
LINEAL FOOT. 



11] 






(continued. 


) 








Tliickness 
ialadus. 


5" 


5}i" 


5K'' 


I 
5%" 


G^' 


634'^ 


e}4" 


1.41 


12" 




1.04 


1.09 


1.15 


1.20 


1.25 


1.30 


1.35 


2.50 


2.08 


2.19 


2.29 


2.40 


2.50 


2.60 


2.71 


2.81 


5.00 


3.13 


3.28 


3.44 


3.59 


3.75 


3.91 


4.06 


4.22 


7.50 


4.17 


4.38 


4.58 


4.79 


5.00 


5.21 


5.42 


5.63 


10.00 


\ 


5.21 


5.47 


573 


5 99 


6.25 


6.51 


6.77 


7.03 


12.50 


6.25 


6.56 


6.88 


7.19 


7.50 


7.81 


8.13 


8.44 


15.00 


7.29 


7.66 


8.02 


8.39 


8.75 


9.11 


9.48 


9.84 


17.50 


8.33 


8.75 


9.17 


9.58 


10.00 


10.42 


10.83 


11.25 


20.00 




9.38 


9.84 


10.31 


1078 


11.25 


11.72 


12.19 


12.66 


22.50 


\ 


10.42 


10.94 


11.46 


1198 


-12.50 


13.02 


13.54 


14.06 


25.00 


11.46 


12.03 


12.60 


13.18 


13.75 


14.32 


14.90 


15.47 


27.50 


12.50 


13.13 


13.75 


14.38 


15.00 


15.63 


16.25 


16.88 


30.00 


■ti 

it 

<i 

a 

1 


13.54 


14.22 


14 90 


15.57 


16.25 


16.93 


17.60 


18.28 


32.50 


14.58 


15.31 


16.04 


16.77 


17.50 


18.23 


18.96 


19.69 


35.00 


15.63 


16.41 


17.19 


17.97 


18.75 


19.53 


20.31 


21.09 


37.50 


16.67 


17.50 


18.33 


1917 


20.00 


20.83 


21.67 


22.50 


40.00 


i-h 


17.71 


18.59 19.48 


20.36 


21.25 


22.14 


23.02 


23.91 


42.5C 


u 


18.75 


19.69 


20.63 


21.56 


22.50 


23.44 


24.88 


25.31 


45.00 


4 


19.79 


20.78 


21.77 


22.76 


23.75 


24.74 


25.73 


26.72 


47.50 


A 


20.83 


21.88 


22.92 


23.96 


25.00 


26.04 


27.08 


28.13 


50.00 


'A 


21.88 


22.97 


24.06 


25.16 


26.25 


27.34 


28.44 


29.53 


52.50 


1 1 


22.92 


24.06 


25.21 


26.35 


27.50 


28.65 


29.79 


30.94 


55.00 


lA 


23.96 


25.16 


26.35 


27.55 


28.75 


29.95 


31.15 


32.34 


57.50 


li 


25.00 


26.25 


27.50 


28.75 


30.00 


31.25 


32.50 


33.75 


60.00 


i/j 


26.04 


27.34 


28.65 


29.95 


'.31.25 


32.55 


33.85 


35.16 


62.5C 


H 


27.08 


28.44 


29.79 


31.15 


32.50 


33.85 


35.21 


36.56 


65.0(] 


Hi 


28.13 


29.53 


30.94 


82.34 


33.75 


35.16 


36.56 


37.97 


67.5C 


li 


29.17 


30.63 


32.08 


83.54 


35.00 


36.46 


37.92 


39.38 


70.0C 


HI 


30.21 


31.72 


33.23 


34.74 


36.25 


37 76 


39.27 


40.78 


72.5( 


ii 


31.25 


32.81 34.38 


35.94 


37.50 


39.06 


40.63 


42.19 


75.Q( 


•J'. 


32.29 


33.91 35.52 


37.14 


38 75 


40.36 


41.98 


43.59 


77.5( 


32.33 


35.00 


136.67 


38.33 


40.00 


41.67 


43.33 


45.00 


S0.0( 



WEIGHTS OF FLAT ROLLED IRON PER 
LINEAL FOOT. 

(continued.) 



Tbickaess 
in laches. 


!'_' 


7K" 
1.51 


1.56 


1.61 


8" 

167 


1.72 


fe>^" 


SX" 


12'^ 


■A 


1.46 


s- 

1.77 


1.82 


2 50 


i 


2.92 


3.02 


313 


3.23 


3.33 


3.44 


3.54 


865 


5oe 


■ft 


^.38. 


4.53 


4.69 


4.84 


5.00 


516 


631 


5.47 


7.50 


i 


5.83 


6.04 


6.25 


6.46 


6.67 


6,88 


7 08 


7.29 


10.00 


A 


7.29 


7.55 


7.81 


8.07 


8.33 


8.59 


8.85 


9.11 


12:50 


i 


8.75 


9.06 


9.38 


9.69 


10.00 


10.31 


1063 


4^.94 


15.00 


A 


10.21 


10.57 


10.94 


11.30 


11.67 


12.03 


12.40 


12.76 


1750 


h 


1167 


12.08 


12.50 


12.92 


13.33 


1375 


14.17 


14.58 


2000 


■■->■■ 


13 13 


13 59 


14.06 


14.53 


15 00 


15 47 


15 94 


16.41 


22 5(J 


t 


14.58 


15 10 


15.63 


16.16 


16 67 


17 19 


J771 


18.23 


25 00 


4 


16.04 


16.61 


17.19 


17 76 


18.33 


1891 


19 48 


20.05 


27.50 


1 


17.50 


18.13 


18.75 


19 38 


20 00 


20.63 


21.25 


21.88 


30.00 


H 


18.96 


il9 64 


20 31 


20 99 


21.67 


22.34 


23.02 


23.70 


32.50 


i 


20 42 


21 15 


2188 


22.60 


23.33 


24.06 


24.79 


25.52 


35.00 


H 


2188 


22.66 


23.44 


24.22 


25.00 


25.78 


26.56 


27.34 


37.50 


1 


23 33 


24 17 


25.00 


25.83 


26.67 


27.50 


28.33 


2917 


4000 


^i^ 


24 79 


25 68 


26.56 


27.45 


28.33 


29.22 


30-. 10 


30 99 


42 50 


li 


26.25 


27 19 


28.13 


29.06 


30.00 


30.94 


3188 


32.81 


45.00 


li^s 


27.71 


28.70 


29.69 


30.68 


31.67 32.66 


33.65 


34 64 


47.50 


M 


29.17 


,30.21 


31.25 


32.29 


33.38 34.38 


35 42 


36.46 


50.00 


<Vs 


30.62 


3172 


32.81 


33.91 


35.00 


3^.09 


37 19 '38.28 


52.50 


1? 


32.08 


33.23 


34.38 


35.52 


36.67 


37.81 


38.9614010 


55.00 


h\ 


33.54 


34.74 


35.94 


37.14 


38.33 


39.53 


40 7314193 


67.50 


H 


36.00 


36.25 


37.50 


38.75 


40.00 


41.25 


42.60 


43.75 


60.00 


^x\ 


36.46 


37 76 


39.06 


40.36 


41.67 


42.97 


44.27 


4557 


62 5Q' 


lY 


37 92 


39.27 


40.63 


41.98 


43.33 


44.69 


46.04 


47.40 


65.00 


Hi 


39.38 


40.78 


42.19 


43.59 


45.00 


4641 


47.81 


49.22 


67.50 


/^ 


•40.33 


42.29 


43.75 


46.21 


46.67 


48.13 


49.58 


51.04 


70.00 


Hf 


42.29 


43.80 


45.31 


46.82 


48.33 


49.84 


51. a5 


• 52.86 


S^50 


fl'i 


43.75 


45.31 


46.88 


48.44 


50.00 


51 5() 


53.13 


54.69 


75.00 


ifl- 


45.21 


46.82 


48.44 


50.05 


51.67 


53.28 


54.90 


56.51 


77.50 


.^ 


46.67 


48.33 


50.00 


51.67 


63.33 


55.00 


66.67 


58.33 


80.00 



WEIGHTS OF FLAT ROLLED IRON PER 
LINEAL FOOT. 



(continued.) 







mSeknma 




inlochtt.; 


9^' 


^ I 


1.88 


;4 


8.75 


07 1 


6.63 


"i h 


7.60 


'k ' 


9.38 


lil 


11.25 


\l5 ■ 


13.13 


1^ 


15.00 


16.88 
18.75 


20.63 


1* 


22.50 


24.88 


N 


26.25 


m 


28.1$^ 


^ '. 


30.00 


Wn. ■ ! 




sr 


31.88 


33.75 


,1A 


35.63 


.*i 


37.50 


V 




IW 


39.38 


U 


41.25 
43.13 


Vi 


45.00 


^ -• 




■lA 


46.88 


u 


48.75 


lU 


50.63 


>i 


52.50 


in 


54.38 


lY 


56.25 


■IH 


53.13 


« 


[60.00 



9^': 



1.93 
8.85 

5.78 
7.71 

9.64 
11.56 
13.49 
15.42 

17.34 

21J20 
23.13 

25.05 
26.98 
28.91 



32.76 
34.69 
36.61 



9H" 



1.98 
8.96 
5.94 
7.92 

9.90 
11.88 
13.85 
15.83 

17.81 
19.79 
21.77 
23.75 

25.73 
27.71 
29.69 
31.67 

33.65 
35.63 
37.60 
8.54 , 39.58 



40.47 
^JiAO 
44.32 
46.25 

48.18 
60.10 
52.03 
53.96 

55.89 
57.81 
59.74 
61.67 



41.56 
43.54 
45.52 
47.50 

49.48 
61.46 
53.44 
65.42 

57.40 
59.38 
CI .35 
63.33 



9K" 


10" 


lOi'' 


1(H" 


lOi" 

2^24 
4.48 
6.72 
8.96 


2.03 
4.06 
6.09 
8.13 


2.08 
4.17 
6.25 
8.33 


2.14 
4.27 
6.41 
8.54 


2.19 
4.38 
6.56 
8.75 


10.16 
12.19 
14.22 

16.25 


10.42 
12.50 
14.58 
16.67 


10.68 
12.81 
14.95 
17.08 


10.94 
13.13 
15.31 
17.50 


11J30 
13.44 
15.68^ 
17.92 


18.28 
20.31 
22.34 
24.38 


18.75 
20.83 
22.92 
25.00 


19.22 
21.35 
23.49 
25.62 


19.69 
21.88 
24.06 
26.25 


20.16 
22.40 
24.64 
26.88 


26.41 
28.44 
30.47 
32.50 


27.08 
29.17 
31.25 
33.33 


27.76 
29.90 
32.03 
34.17 


28.44 
30.63 
32.81 
35.00 


29.11 
31.35 
33.69 
35.83 


34.53 
36.56 
38.59 
40.63 


85.42 
37.50 
89.58 
41.67 


36.30 
88.44 
40.57 
42.71 


37.19 
39.38 
41.56 
43.75 


38.07 
40.31 
42.55 
44.79 


42.66 
44.69 
46.72 
48.75 


43.75 
45.83 
47.92 
50.00 


44.84 
46.98 
49.11 
61.25 


45.94 
48.13 
60.31 
62.50 


47.03 
49.27 
51.51 
63J5 


50.78 
62.81 
64.84 
66.88 


52.08 
64.17 
56.25 
58.33 


53.39 
55.52 
67.66 
69.79 


54.69 
66.88 
69.06 
61.25 


55.99 
68.23 
60.47 
62.71 


68.91 
60.94 
62,97 
65.00 


60.42 
62.50 
64.58 
66.67. 


61.93 
64.06 
66.20 
68.33. 


63.44 
65.63 
67.81 
7.Q.Q0, 


64.95 
07.19 
69.43 
71.C7 



203 



^VEIGHTS OF FLAT ROLLED IRON PER 
LINEAL FOOT. 



(CONTINUED.) 



11' 



2.29 
4.58 
6.88 
9.17 

11.46 
13.75 
10.04 
18.33 

20.63 
22.92 
25.21 
27.50 

29 79 
32.08 
34.3^ 
38.67 



lU" lU" 



2.34 
4.69 
7.03 



11.72 
14.03 
16.41 
18.75 

21.09 
23.44 
25.78 
28.13 

30.47 
32.81 
35.16 
37.50 



38.96 39.84 

41.25 42.19 

;.54 44.53 



45.88 46.88 47.92 



48.13 
50.42 
52.71 
56.00 

57.29 
59.58 
61.88 
64.17 

66.46 
08.75 
71.04 
73.33 



2.40 
4.79 
7.19 
9.58 

11.98 
14.38 
16.77 
19.17 

21.56 
23.96 
26.35 
28.75 

31.15 
33.54 
35.94 
38.33 



4952 
61.56 
53.91 
56J25 

58.59 
60.94 
63.28 
65.63 

67.97 
70.31 
72.66 
75.00 



43.13 
45.52 



HI 



2.45 
4.90 
7.34 
9.79 

12.24 
14.69 
17.14 
19.5& 

22.03 
24.48 
26.93 
29.38 

31.82 
34.27 
36.72 
39.17 



40.73 41.61 



50.31 
52.71 
55.10 
57.50 

59.90 
62.29 
64.69 
67.08 

69.48 
7J88 
74 27 
76.67 



44.06 
46.51 
48.96 



51.41 
63.85 
56.30 

58.75 

61.20 
63.65 
66.09 
68.54 

70.99 
73.44 
75.89 
78.33 



12" 


12i" 


2.50 


2.55 


5.00 


5.10 


7.50 


7.66 


10.00 


10.21 


12.50 


12.76 


15.00 


15.31 


17.50 


17.86 


20.00 


20.42 


22.50 


22.97 


25.00 


25.52 


27.50 


28.07 


30.00 


30.63 



12^" 



32.50 
36.00 
37.50 
40.00 

42.50 
45.00 
47.50 
50.00 

52.50 
65.00 
67.50 
60.00 

62.60 
65.00 
67.50 
70.00 

72.50 
75.00 
77.50 
80.00 



33.18 
35.73 



40.83 

43.39 
45.94 
48.49 
51.04 

53.59 
56.15 
68.70 
61.25 

63.80 
66.35 
68.91 
71.46 

74.01 
76.56 
79.11 
81.67 



12f 



2.60 
5.21 
7.81 
10.42 

13.02 
15.63 

18.23 
20.83 

23.44 
26.04 
28.65 
31.25 

33.85 
36.46 
39.06 
4167 

44.27 
46.88 
49.48 
52.08 

54.69 
57.29 
59.90 
62.60 

65.10 
67.71 
70.31 
72.92 

75.52 
78.13 
80.73 
83.33 



2.66 
5.31 
7.97 
10.63 

13.28 
45.94 
18.59 
2\2b 

23.91 
26.56 
29.22 
31.88 

34.53 
37.19 
39.84 
42.60 

45.16 
47.81 
50.47 
53.13 

65.78 
68.44 
61.09 
63.75 

66.41 
69.06 
71.72 
74.38 

77.03 
79.69 
82.34 
85.00 



3 3 

i ^ 

0. 



ill 

-3 s. 



1^ 



|X 
5*3 



is 



204 



Weight of Rivets, and Round Headed Bolts 
Without Nuts, Per loo. 

Length from under head. One cubic foot weighing 480 lbs. 



iOngtL 


•K'' 


H" 


%" 


^'' 


J^" 


1" 


1^" 


IH'' 


Inches. 


Pia. 


Dia. 


Dia. 


Dia. 


Dia. 


Dia. 


Dia. 


Dia. 


1^ 


5.4 


12.6 


2i.5 


28.7 


43.1 


65.3 


91.5 


123. 


1>^ 


6.2 


13.9 


23.7 


318 


47.3 


70.7 


98.4 


133. 


1% 


6.9 


15.3 


25.8 


34.9 


61.4 


76.2 


105. 


142. 


2 


7.7 


16.6 


27.0 


37.9 


55.6 


81.6 


112. 


150. 


V4 
2,4 


8.5 


18.0 


80.0 


41.0 


69.8 


87.1 


119. 


159. 


9.2 


19.4 


32.2 


44.1 


63.0 


92.5 


126. 


167. 


2^ 


10.0 


20.7 


84.3 


47.1 


68.1 


98.0 


133. 


176. 


■b 


10.8 


22.1 


36.4 


505 


72.3 


103. 


140. 


184 


m 


11.5 


23.5 


88.6 


53 3 


76 5 


109 ^ 


147. 


193. 


zyi 


12.3 


24.8 


40 7 


56 4 


80 7 


114. 


154. 


201. 


m 


13.1 


26.2 


42.8 


694 


84.8 


120. 


161. 


210. 


.* 


13.8 


27.5 


45.0 


62.5 


89 


126. 


167. 


218. 


4K 


14.6 


28.9 


47.1 


65.6 


932 


131. 


174 


227. 


u>^ 


15.4 


30.3 


49.2 


68.6 


97 4 


136. 


181. 


236. 


4^ 


16.2 


31.6 


51.4 


717 


102. , 


142. 


188. 


244. 


5 


16.9 


33.0 


63.5 


•74.8 


106. 


147.^ 


195. , 


253. 


b}i 


17.7 


34.4 


556 


77.8 


110. 


153.' 


202.' 


261- 


m 


18.4 


86.7 


577 


80.9 


114. 


158. 


209. 


270. 


m 


19^ 


37.1 


59.9 


84.0 


118. 


168. 


216. 


278. 




20.0 


38.5 


62.0 


87.0 


122. 


169. 


223. 


287. 


21.5 


41.2 


66.3 


93.2 


131.' 


180.' 


236. 


304- ' 


i7 


23.0 


43.9 


70.5 


99 3 


139. 


191. - 


260 


321. 


7y, 


24.6 


46.6 


74.8 


106. 


147. 


202. 


264. 


838. 


8 


26.1 


49.4 


79.0 


112, 


156. 


213. 


278. 


855. 


27.6 


52.1 


83.3 


118. 


164. 


223 - 


292^ 


372. 


1^ 


29.2 


54.8 


87.6 


124. 


173. 


234. 


306. 


389. 


f9>^ 


30.7 


67.6 


91.8 


130. 


181 


245. 


319. 


406. 


10 


32.2 


60.3 


96.1 


136. 


189. 


255. 


333. 


423. 


50>^ 


33.8 


63.0~ 


101. 


142. 


198. 


267. 


347- 


440.' 


rll 


35.3 


65.7 


105. 


148, 


206. 


278. 


361. 


457. 


'i\H 


86.8 


68.5 


m. 


155. 


214. 


289. 


375. 


474. 


12 


38.4 


71.2 


113. 


161. 


223._^ 


300. 


388; 


49L 


Beads. 


1.8 


5.7 


10.9 


13.4 


22.2 


88.0 


57.0 


82.0 



205 

Weight of Cast Iron per Lineal Foot.— Example : What is 
weight of a cast iron plate 2" x 14'' x one foot long ? Ans. — The 
thickness multiplied by width equals 28" of sectional area. 

In the sixth column, we find that 87^^ lbs. is the weight of a piece 
with a sectional area of 28" and one foot long. 



Area 

Inches. 


Lbs. 


Area j v,_ 
Iiiches.1 ^^^ 


Area 

laches. 


Lbs. 


Area! r ^ 


Area 

laches. 


Lbs. 


^€ 


.20 


i 




18.75 


21^ 


67.19 


43 


134.38 


69 


216.63 


Y' 


.39 


6'4 


19.53 


22 


68.76 


43>6 


135.94 


70 


218.75 


tV 


.69 


6^^ 


20.31 


22A 


70.81 


44 


137.5 


71 


221.88 


■¥' 


.78 


6^4 


21.09 


23 


71.88 


44^ 


139.06 


72 


225.0 


l\ 


.98 


7 


.21.88 
'22.66 


23»^ 


73.44 


46 


140.63 


73 


228.13 


?^ 


1.17 


7'4 


24 


75.00 


45>i 


142.19 


74 


231.26 


A 


1.37 


VA 


23.44 


243^ 


76.66 


46 


143.76 


75 


234.38 


% 


1.56 


7?£ 


24.22 


26 


78.13 


46^ 


146.31 


7G 


237.5 


/ir 


1.76 


8 


25.00 


25}^ 


79.69 


47 


146.87 


77 


240.63 


% 


1.96 


8^ 


25.78 


26 


81.25 


47^^- 


148.4i^ 


78 


243.75 


H 


2.16 


8^ 


26.66 


26^ 


82.81 


48 


150.00 


79 


249.87 


K 


2.34 


8K 


27.34 


27 


84.38 


48J6 


161.66 


80 


250.00 


H 


2.54 


9 


28.13 


27>6 


85.94 


49 


163.12 


81 


253.12 


Vs 


2.73 


014 


28.91 


28 


87.6 


49^ 


164.69 


82 


256.25 


fit 


2.93 


9A 


29.69 


28»^ 


89.06 


60 


166.26 


83 


269.3g 


1 


3.125 


d'4. 


80.47 


29 


90.63 


60^ 


167.81 


84 


262.6 


IVs 


3.51 


10 


31.25 


29^ 


92.19 


61 


159.38 


85 


266.6$ 


Vyi 


8.91 


10^ 


32.03 


30 


93.75 


61K 


160.94 


80 


268.75 


1% 


4.30 


103^ 


32.81 


30>^ 


95.31 


62 


162.5 


87 


271.88 


l}^ 


4.69 


105^ 


33.69 


31 


96.87 


62>^ 


164.06 


88 


276.00 


1% 


6.08 


11 


34.38 


31>^ 


98.44 


63 


166.68 


89 


278.13 


1% 


6.47 


11^4 


35.16 


32 


100.00 


63^ 


167.19 


90 


281.25 


1% 


6.86 


IVA 


35.94 


32^^ 


101.56 


64 


168.76 


' 91 


284.38 


£• 


6,25 


11% 


36.72 


33 


103.12 


54>^ 


170.31 


92 


287.5 ' 


^Vs 


6.64 


12 


37.5 


33>6 


104.69 


66 


171.88 


93 


290.66 


2'4 


7.03 


12'^ 


39.06 


34 


106.25 


66^^ 


173.44 


• 94 


293.75 


2^ 


7.42 


13 


40.63 


34>^ 


107.81 


60 


175.00 


95 


296.87 


2^ 


7.81 


13^^ 


42.19 


35 


109.38 


66^ 


176.66 


96 


300.00 


^% 


8.20 


14 


43.75 


85}^ 


110.94 


57 


178.13 


97 


303.13 


2% 


8.59 


I4H 


45.31 


36 


112.5 


571^ 


179.69 


98 


306.25 


2% 


8.98 


15 


46.87 


36>6 


114.06 


68 


181.25 


99 
100 


309.38 


3 


9.38 


15^2 


48.44 


37 


115.63 


58>!i 


182.81 


312.5 ' 


3^ 
3)^ 


10.16 
10.04 


16 

16!^ 


50.00 
51.56 


37>^ 
38 


117.19 
118.75 


59 

59}^ 


184.38 
185.94 


101 
102 
103 


315.63 
318.75 
322.88 


Z% 


11.72 


17 


53.12 


38><^ 


120.31 


60 


187.5 


104 


325.00 


4 


125 


17^, 


54.69 


39 


121.88 


61 


190.63 


105 


328.13 


4'4 


13.28 


18 


66.25 


39)^ 


123.44 


62 


193.7 5 


106 


331.25 


4>6 


14.00 


18!^ 


67.81 


40 


125.00 


63 


196.87 


107 


334.38 


4% 


14.84 


19 


59.38 


40^2 


126.56 


64 


200.00 


108 


337.5 


6 


15.63 


19Ji2 60.94 


41 


128.13 


65 


203.125 


109 


3 4 0.63 


654 


16.41 


20 62.5 


41>^ 


12y.6'.» 


66 


206.25 


110 


34 3.75 


.5>6 


17.19 


'20] J 4.06 


4 2 


i:n.2r> 


67,^ 


209.38 


111 


346. H7 


,5% 


17.97 


21 1 


65.63 


42 !v^ 


132.81 


68 


212.6 


112 


350.0(^ 



2o6 



jLITfEAB EXPAI7SI0IT OP STJBSTAI^CES 
BY HEAT." 

To Tincl the mcrease m the length of a bar of any material due 
Id an increase of temperature, multiply the number of degrees' 
of increase of temperature by the coefficient for 100 degrees and 
by the length of the bar, and divide by 100. 



Name of Sitbstance. 



Baywood, (in the direction of the I 
grain, dry.) ^ • * ^^^. I 

Brass, (cast,) • ^ • ;-^ 



(wiri) 



A' 



Brick, (file,) 

Oment, (Roman,) • ' • . • 

Copper, - ^ '': * ♦ 

j^ ■ - . . 

Deal, (in the direction of the grain. 

Glass, (English flint,)^^ ^^"^ 
'• (French white lead,) 

Gold, - . '^ 

Granite, (average,) 

Iron, (cast,) • 
•' (soft forged,) 
" (wire,) . 

tead. 



Marble, (Carrara,) 

Mercury, ^rjS.-, 

P1fltinrim» 3£^' 

SaTKJstcaae, < 



j i 



Silver, •"■>^^-— — ^^^— ^s-^---^ - 

Slate, (Wales,) %'. •" - / - 
Water, (varies considerably with 
ttuB temperature,) » -iS.* _ 



CoeSdect for IOC « 


CoeSa«ntf5rl80* 

P»inaie:i. or 106 • 

CetiUfrada. 


.00028 

TO 

.00031 


.00046 

TO 

00057 


.00104 


.00188 


.00107 


.00193 


.0003 


.0005' 


.0008 


.0014" 


.0009 


.0017; 


:00024 


.00044 


.00045 


.00081 


.00043 


.00087 


.0008 


.0016 


.00047 


.00085 


.0006 


.0011 


.0007 


.0012 


.0008 


.0014 


.0016 


.0029 


.00036 

TO 

.0006 


.00065 

TO " 

.0011 


.0033 


.0060 


.0005 


.0009 


.0005 

TO 

.0007 


.0009 

TO \ 

.0012 


.0011 


.003 


.0006 


.001 


.0086 


.0155^ 



2d7 
Weight of Bolts per loo, Including Nuts. 



1 








DIAMETER. 






J 


1 1 

_1 


''a'- 


i 


■f« 


1 


f 


i 


I 


I 


\H 


4. 


7. 


10.50 


1520 


22.60 


39.50 


:, 


•"t-*""- 




|if 


4.35 


7.60 


11.25 


16.80 


23.82 


41.62 


■■:y^ 






i« 


4.75 


8. 


12. 


17.40 


25.15 


48.76 


69. ^ 


..,^i. 




[«i 


6.15 


8.60 


12.75 


18.60 


26.47 


45.88 


72. • 


...z.. 




1 


5.50 


0. 


13.50 


19.60 


27.80 


48": , 


75. 


116.60 




i« 


5.75 


9.60 


14.25 


20.70 


29.12 


60.12 


78. ^• 


121.75 


.. 




6.«5 


10. 


15. 


21.80 


8Q.45 


62.26 


81. 


126. 


.... 


H 


'7. 


11. 


16.50 


24. 


S3.U> 


66.60 


%1. ■ 


134.25 


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4 


7.75 


12. 


18. 


26.20 


36.7 6 


60 75 


93.10 


142.50 


207 


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8.60 


13. 


19.50 


28.40 


88.40 


66. 


99.(|^ 


161. 


218 


i6 


0.25 


14. 


2i. 


30.60 


41.06 


69.25 


105.20 


169.66 


22d 


« 


10. 


16. 


22.50 


32.80 


43.70 


73.60 


111.26 


168. 


240 


[64 


lft-76 


16. 


24. 


35. 


46.36 


77.76 


117.80 


176.60 


251 




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26.60 


37.20 


♦ 9. 


82. 


128.36 


186. 


26ft 


■ 7 






27. 
28.60 


39.40 
41.60 


61.65 
64.80 


86.26 
00.50 


129.40 
185. 


193.66 
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284 


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80. 


48.80 


69.60 


94.75 


141.60 


210.70 


295 


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46. 


64.90 


108.25 


153.60 


227.75 


317 


10 


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48.20 


70.20 


111.76 


166 70 


244.80 


339 


11 




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50.40 
62.60 


75.60 
80 80 


120.26 
128.75 


177.80 
189.90 


261.85 
278.90 


360 


18 


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38» 


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14 


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8&10 
91.40 


137 26 
116.75 


202 
214.10 


295 95 
313.^ 


404 
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96 70 


164 25 


226.20 


330 05 


448 


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102. 


162.?5 


238.80 


347.10 


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250.40 


364 15 


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112.60 


179.60 


262.60 


381 20 


514 


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117.90 
123.20 


188. 
iOO 60 


274.70 
286.80 


398.25 
415.80 


6SO 
55H 



2o8 
AMOUNT OF SUGAR IN COAL. 

In a ton of coal, there is saccharine equal to that m 
230 pounds of sugar. That is to say, there is $i6 worth of 
sweetness in a ton of coal ; but how to get it out, is the 
question. 

Electricians are still at work on the problem of obtaining 
electricity direct from coal. 

In four years the commercial efficiency of electrial 
machinery has been increased from 6*j to 90 per cent., and 
the cost of a given current is not 25 per cent, of what it was 
a year ago. 

Rivets, with countersunk heads, are used for fastening 
the thin plates of torpedo boats, the rivets being headed 
inside; 

Canada takes nearly 2,000,000 tons of anthracite and bitu- 
minous coal each year. 

ELECTRO-PLATING WITH NICKEL. 

The following solution for electro-plating with nickel is 
used by several firms in Hainault: 500 grms. of nickel sul- 
phate, 365 grms. of neutral ammonium tartrate, 2-5 grms. of 
tannin dissolved in ether, and 10 litres of water, i^ litre 
of water is first added, and the mixture boiled for fifteen 
minutes; the remainder of the water is then added, and the 
whole filtered. The Electrician says: " Solution yields an 
even white deposit, which is not brittle, and the cost of 
which is hardly more than electro-plating with copper." 

ELECTRO-PLATING WITH ALUMINUM. 

The electro deposition of aluminum is attended with some 
practical difficulty. The following solution is said to give 
excellent results : Alum, 30 parts ; water, 300 parts ; aluminum 
chloride, 10 parts. The solution is heated to 200*^ F., and. 
after cooling, 39 parts of potassium chloride are added. 



Most of the industries of Germany are in operation on 
Sunday. In some factories the workmen, after they be- 
come too old to work, receive full pay, and in others half pay, 
the rest of their lives. In some factories the employes are 
insured for $500 and $250. Savings banks are also con- 
nected with many industries. 






209 

IN THE SHOP — TURNING A BALL. 
To make a ball as nearly perfect as a billiard ball is made, 
is not a piece of work that often falls to the lot of the 
machinist or pattern-maker ; but occasionally arises the 
necessity for such work. 

In pumping where chips, sawdust, or dust is very liable to 
lodge on the seat under the valve, ball valves are sometimes 
used, because their rolling motion has a tendency to remove 
the obstruction, and let the valve seat fairly again. Some of 
the old-style locomotive pumps had ball valves ; and, in 
tannery work, when small pieces of bark are liable to be in 
the liquid, ball valves can be used to advantage. 

I have some such valves, four or five inches in diameter, 
for tanner's use. They were of brass, cast hollow, with the 
core holes in the shell plugged. 

I have seen some costly machines which were made for the 
purpose of turning balls ; but I have never ^een any better 
work done by them than can be done in a common lathe. 

To make the pattern of a ball, first turn the piece on 
centers, using the calipers to get it approximately near the 
shape, and then cut off the centers. Next make a chuck- 
block of hardwood, A, as shown in the cut, Fig, I. Make 
a cup in the block to receive a small section of the ball, as 
also indicated. A blunt, wood center is sometimes used 
instead of the steel center with a concave piece of copper, as 
represented in cut. Either way will do for making the 
pattern. Put the work in the chuck so as to take the first cut 
around it in the direction of its former centers, or axis. 

Cut lightly, and do not try 
to make a wide space — let it 
be only a narrow ribbon or 
turning — but get it round 
in the direction of present 
revolution ; then change the 
chuck so as to make another 
ribbon at right angles to the 
first, the first tool marks 
being the guide for the depth 
of the second cutting. Next 

^ ^ change the work so as to get 

a ribbon between the other cuts, and continuing this process of 
changing and turning over the whole surface, thus makmg the 
axis of the pattern of equal length in all directions, and then 
the pattern will be round— it will be a ball. At first it might 
seem as if some laying off were needed to get the " ribbons," 




as I have called them, at right angles to each other, but there 
is no need of that ; by the eye is enough. 

When the machinist comes to finish up the casting, he 
can bolt the chuck-block to his face plate, and use his steel 
center and a concave piece of copper as represented in the 
cut. He will have to use a hand tool, or a scraper, after 
getting under the scale. 

If the ball becomes too small for the cup in the block, it 
is an easy matter to make a new fit by cutting deeper into the 
chuck-block. 

THE ACTION OF SEA-WATER ON CAST-IRON 
PILES. 
Indiana E?igi7ieering notes the results of some. observa- 
tions made by the chief engineer of the B. B. and C. L 
Railway on the cast-iron piles forming the piers of the South 
Bassien bridge. The piles were put down in 1S62. Two 
were found almost as fresh in appearance as when sunk, and 
showed no corrosions in specimens cut from the metal. The 
deepest corrosion found on any pile was ^ inch ; and this 
corrosion was the greatest near low-water mark. The pile 
bolts were all in excellent condition. All of these piles have 
been exposed to the action of sea-water for about twenty- 
five years, and the examination was made to set aside a current 
suspicion that they were deteriorating under the action of the 
water. 

JAPANESE WATER PIPES. 
The water supply of Tokio, Japan, is by the wooden water 
pipe system, which has been in existence over two hundred 
years, furnishing at present a daily supply of from twenty-five 
to thirty million gallons. There are several t}'pes of water 
pipes in use, the principal class being built up with plank, 
square, and secured together by frames surrounding them at 
close intervals. The pipes, less than six inch, consist of bored 
logs, and somewhat larger ones are made by placing a cap on 
the top of a log in which a very lar^e groove has been cut. 
All the connections are made by chamfered joints, and cracks 
are calked with an inner fibrous bark. Square boxes are 
used in various places to regulate the uniformity of the flow 
of the water, which is rather rapid, for the purpose of pre- 
venting aquatic growth. TLe water is not delivered to the 
houses, but into reservoirs on the sides of the streets, nearly 
15,000 in number. 



THE HEATING POWER OF FUEL. 

The heating power of fuel is ascertained by the following 
process, which consists in burning one gramme of the coal or 
fuel in a small platinum crucible, supported on the bowl of a 
tobacco pipe, and covfered by an inverted glass test tube, 
through which is passed a stream of oxygen, while the whole 
is placed under water in a glass vessel. The oxygen is fed 
into the test tube by a movable copper tube, which may be 
pushed into the test tube so as to come immediately over the 
crucible. The coals burn away in a few minutes with very 
intense heat, and the hot gases escape through the water, the 
bubbles being broken up by passing through sheets of wire 
gauze which stretch between the test tube and the walls of 
the vessel containing the water in which it is placed. The 
temperature of the water is taken before and after the 
experiment, and, from the figures thus obtained, the heating 
power of the coal is calculated. ^ 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRICITY. 

There are now about $6,000,000 invested in the manufac- 
ture of electric motors in the United States, and this, large 
investment has nearly all been made within the last three or 
four years. It represents either the independent invest- 
ment of companies engaged in the exclusive manufacture 
of motors, or an increase in the capitalization of companies 
that manufacture electric appliances, and find the construc- 
tion of electric motors a good auxiliary industry. Some 
of these companies employ many hundred men, some- 
times approaching a thousand, and they turn out motors 
almost innumerable each year. These motors are of all sizes, 
from one-half horse power, for driving sewing machines and 
such other light work, up to several hundred horse power for 
lieavy work. They are becoming a driving force in almost 
•every industry, and can be utilized in localities where the cost 
of obtaining fuel would almost equal their operating expenses. 
The chief secret of the rapid advance of this new mechanical 
agent is found in the flexibility of its resources. Electricity is 
not the generator of power, but only the agency for its trans- 
mission and distribution, as it is an agent for the transmission 
of the human voice over the telephone wire. Through its 
resources, power can be distributed to any point, and in 
quantities to suit the customer. Steam, water, air, caloric, or 
any known agency for generating power, is either stationary 
or it demands stationary appliances ; but electricity is its 
messenger boy, its " Puck, " who will consent to do its errands 



invisibly, and never ask a day off or the grant of liberty. 
Does a lady want an infinitesimal bit of electrical energy to 
relieve her boot on the treadle of her sewing machine, it can . 
be delivered in her room through an iron box not much bigger 
than her reticule. Is the restaurant keeper plagued by an 
invasion of flies that expel all but the most hungry and least 
profitable customers, they can be gently wafted to the door 
by a multitude of revolving fans, and turned out either into 
the bright sunlight or the refreshing shower. Everywhere, 
any^vhere, without a particle of dust, offensive odor or dis- 
agreeable noise, the electric motor can be set to work, and, 
while it will bring the substance of the thing wanted, it will 
leave behind everything that can give offense. The electric 
motor has passed its experimental stages, and the day seems 
to be rapidly approaching when every house will find some- 
thing for it to do in lifting burdens from floor to floor, and 
performing every possible labor that can be done by machinery. 
Manufacturers have not yet begun to construct motors orna- 
mented with gold leaf, mother of pearl, and precious stones, 
to rock cradles in the nurseries, but these requirements will 
come in time. 

CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL TESTS FOR STEEL. 

Captain Jones, of the Edgar Thomson Steel Works, 
Pittsburg, was in Edinburgh at the meeting of the Union and 
Steel Institute, and, when invited to speak, said he could not 
let what Mr. Clark had said about the practice of punching 
steel plates in America pass without comment. Punching 
steel plates was a relic of barbarism, and there was an appro- 
priateness about the president's suggestion, to " punch a man 
who punched a plate. " As to the relative cost of punching 
and drilling, he had long since made up his mind about that, 
for many years ago, in constructing a roof, he had drilled all 
the holes and found it cheaper than punching. With regard 
to the use of steel in America, they found boiler-makers, 
bridge-makers and many others using it largely. They had 
started with physical tests, not chemical analysis, but they 
had come to the conclusion that physical tests could be met, 
and yet the metal not be what it should be. The test for 
boiler plates at the Edgar Thomson Works was higher than 
that demanded for the boiler plates of the United States 
cruisers, the limit for phosphorus being .035, and manganese, 
.350 per cent. He bad seen steel made in America, where 
the heat had been blown for eight minutes, the manganese 
being put in cold, and he was of opinion that the reaction 
had not taken place up to the time of speaking. With regard 



213 

to steel for bridge construction, he considered that not more 
than .065 per cent, of phosphorus should be present, and the 
manganese should be kept low, as that was the great oxidiz- 
ii"^g agent. He would like to see these conditions enforced 
by law. In conclusion he wished to impress on his hearers 
the necessity for judging steel by chemical tests first, and let- 
ting the physical tests be subsidiary to them. 

. SUGGESTIONS TO STEEL WORKERS. 

Messrs. Miller, Metcalf & Parkin, of Pittsburgh, have 
issued a pamphlet on this subject. They draw attention to 
the following points : 

Annealing — There is nothing gained by heating a piece 
of steel hotter than a bright cherry-red heat ; on the contrary, 
a higher heat may render the steel harder on cooling than 
would be the case with the heat just mentioned. Besides 
this, the scale formed would be granular, and would spoil the 
tools to be used in working the metal, and^the metal itself 
would change its structure, and become brittle. 

Steel should never be left in a hot furnace over night, as 
the metal becomes too hot, and is spoilt for after treatment. 

Forge Steel — The difficulty experienced in the forge fire is 
usually due more to uneven heat than to a high temperature. 
If heated too rapidly^ the outside of the bar becomes soft, 
■while the inside is still hard, and at too low a temperature for 
treatment. 

In some cases a high heat is more desirable to save heavy 
labor ; but in every case where a fine steel is to be used for 
cutting purposes, it must be borne in mind that every heavy 
forging refines the bars as they slowly cool, and, if the smith 
heats such refined bars mitil they are soft, he raises the grain, 
makes them coarse, and he cannot get them fine again, unless 
he has a very heavy steam hammer at command, and knows 
how to use it well. 

When the steel is hot through, it should be taken from 
the fire immediately, and forged as quickly as possible. 
" Soaking " in the fire causes steel to become " dry " and 
brittle, and does it very great injury. 

7>;;2/^r— The word " temper," as used by the steelmaker, 
indicates the amount of carbon in steel ; thus, steel of high 
temper, is steel containing much carbon ; steel of low temper, 
is steel containing little carbon ; steel of medium temper is 
steel containing carbon between these limits. Between the 
highest and the lowest, there are some twenty divisions, each 
representing a definite percentage of carbon. 

The act of tempering steefis the act of giving to a piece 



214 

of steel, after it has been shaped, the hardness necessary for 
the work it has to do. This is done by first hardening the 
piece — generally a good deal harder than is necessary — and 
then toughening it by slow heating and gradual softening until 
it is just right for work. 

A piece of steel, properly tempered, should always be 
finer in grain than the bar from which it is made. If it is 
necessary, in order to make the piece as hard as is required, 
to heat it so hot that after being hardened it will be as coarse 
or coarser in grain than the bar, then the steel itself is of too 
low a temper for the desired purpose. In a case of this kind, 
the steelmaker* should at once be notified of the fact, and 
could immediately correct the trouble by furnishing higher 
steel. 

Heating — There are three distinct stages or tim.es of 
heating : 

First, for forging ; second, for hardening ; third, for 
tempering. 

The first requisite for a good heat for forging is a clean 
fire, and plenty of fuel, so that jets of hot air will not strike 
the corners of the piece ; next, the fire should be regular, and 
give a good uniform heat to the whole part to be forged. It 
should be keen enough to heat the piece as rapidly as possible, 
and allow it to be thoroughly heated through, without being 
so fierce as to overheat the corners. Steel should not be left 
in fire any longer than is necessary to heat it through ; and, 
on the other hand, it is necessary that it should be hot through 
to prevent surface cracks, which are caused by the reduced 
cohesion of the overheated parts which overlie the colder 
central portion of an irregularly heated piece. ^ 

By observing these precautions, a piece of steel may 
always be heated safely up to even a bright yellow heat when 
there is much forging to be done on it, and at this heat it will 
weld well. The best and most economical of welding fluxes 
is clean, crude borax, which should be first throughly melted, 
and then ground to fine powder. Borax, prepared in this 
way, will not froth on the steel, and one-half of the usual 
quantity wiU do the work as well as the whole quantity 
unmelted. 

After the steel is properly heated, it should be forged to 
shape as quickly as possible ; and, just as the red heat is 
leaving the parts intended for cutting edges, these parts 
should be refined by rapid, light blows, continued until the red 
disappears. ^ 

r For the second stage of heating, for hardening, great 
care should be used, first, to protect the cutting edges and 



I 



2i5 

working parts from heating more rapidly than the body ot 
the piece ; next, that the whole part to be hardened be heated 
uniformly through without any part becoming visibly hotter 
than the other. A uniform heat, as low as will give the 
required hardness, is the best for hardening. For every 
variation of heat which is great enough to be seen, there will 
result a variation in grain, which may be seen by breaking 
the piece ; and for every variation in temperature, a crack is 
likely to be produced. Many a costly tool is ruined by 
inattention to this point. The effect of too high a heat is to 
open the grain — to make the steel coarse. The effect of an 
irregular heat is to cause irregular grain, irregular strains and 
cracks. 

As soon as the piece is properly heated for hardening, it 
should be promptly and thoroughly quenched in plenty of the 
cooling medium — water, brine, or oil, as the case maybe. 
An abundance of the cooling bath, to do the work quickly 
and uniformly all over, is very necessary to good and safe 
work ; and to harden a large piece safely, a "running stream 
should be used. Much uneven hardening is caused by the use 
of too small baths. 

For the third stage of heating, to temper, the first 
important requisite is again uniformity ; the next is time. 
The more slowly a piece is brought down to its temper, the 
better and safer is the operation. When expensive tools, 
such as taps, rose cutters, etc., are to be made, it is a wise 
precaution, and one easily taken, to try small pieces of the 
steel at different temperatures, so as to find out how low a 
heat will give the necessary hardness. The lowest heat is the 
best for any steel ; the test costs nothing, takes very little 
time, and very often saves considerable loss. 

SUCCESSFUL TESTS OF SHEFFIELD STEEL 
ARMOR PLATES. 

The fourth of a series of trials of steel plates took place 
on board the Nettle, at Portsmouth, England, last week. 
The plate, which was manufactured by Messrs. Vickers, Sons 
& Company, Limited, River Don Works, Brightside, Shef- 
field, was of the dimensions and thickness prescribed for 
these tests, viz., 8 feet by 6, and io>^ inches thick. It was 
fired at by a six-inch diameter breech-loading gun, with a 
charge of 48 lbs. of powder and 100 !tis. shot. The first 
shot was a Ploltzer hardened steel shot, the point of which 
penetrated as far as the wood backing, and was driven out 
again by the elasticity of the steel with such force that the 



2l6 

shot stuck the bulkhead through which the gun \\'as fired 
Onlv sHght cracks were made round the hole made by the 
projectile. The second shot, also a Holtzer, did not pene- 
trate to the backing, as far as could be seen. It rebounded 
in the same wav as the first one, and caused a slight crack 
at the top end o'f the plate. The third and fourth Palliser, 
98 R). cast-iron chilled shot, which went to pieces against 
the plate, only causing an extension of the crack made by 
the second shot ; and the fifth shot, another Holtzer, was 
also sent back to the front, after making a slight penetration 
in the wood backing. These results are considered as very 
satisfactory by those who witnessed them, the target having 
resisted all the shots fired at it, and looking quite able to 
resist still further trial. The shot appeared to be of unusually 
good steel, as only one seemed seriously distorted by the 
work. 

WATCH AND LEARX. 

This is an excellent motto for every young man to adopt, 
and, by a close observance of it, it \^'ill prove of great value, 
even after he becomes gro\%Ti up and starts out in business 
for himself. There is no surer way of gaining knowledge 
than by a careful and understanding watchfulness of others 
in the same line of business as yourself. As an apprentice, 
you cannot expect to know everything, and the best way to 
gain information from others is to show a willingness to 
learn ; then they will take an interest in teaching. But if, 
as is too often the case, a yomig man, after he has been a few 
months in a place, pretends to know as much, and sometimes 
more, than those much older and more experienced than him- 
self, he will not get much information from his fellow work- 
men ; neither will he retain their good will for any length of 
time, and may expect to have all manner of practical jokes 
played upon him. As a journeyman, if you are intelligent, 
you will very often have occasion to believe that you do not 
know it all, and, in fact, the longer you live and the more 
you learn, the more you will find that there is to be learned. 
The egotistical and loud man is seldom a perfect man, and is 
generally very far from being as near perfection as he would 
have others think him. The person who, on a first acquaint- 
ance, is anxious to tell you what he knows, and is very free 
in givingadvice and information without the asking, generally 
exhausts the supply before very long. He who is willing to 
listen is generally the one w^hose source of information is 
broader and of a more durable, valuable and substantial 
Iiird An example may prove the idea to be conveyed more 



217 

clearly. An employer was in want of a good, practical and 
experienced man for a certain class of work. A young 
man applied for the position, who was very certain that he 
" knew all about the machine," and he was engaged. It was 
not long before every man in the shop knew all that he did, 
and one very valuable thing that he did not, and that was 
that he did not know all that he pretended to. His manner 
and braggadacio very soon got most of the men down on 
him. They were not disappointed. The new machine 
arrived, and was set up ready for operation. The young 
man was given a job to be worked off, and began operations 
with that self-conscious air of superiority that is generally 
apparent in characters of this description. One whole day 
he worked at the job, and it was not then in a condition to be 
run. Not only that, but he had shown to the men, who, of 
course, were secretly watching him, that he knew practically 
nothing of the machine. Then he began t^ lay the blame 
for the trouble upon others, and asked assistance and 
" points " from some of the other workmen. This of course 
he did not get, and finally another man was put on the job, 
and he was discharged amid the taunts and ridicule of the 
others. If the young man had shown good sense when he 
first came into the shop ; not been quite so free to tell all he 
knew, and had shown a willingness to learn, there was not a 
man in the place that would not have gladly assisted him, and 
he might have remained in a good position. It sometimes 
pays to be ignorant, at least a little modesty is a good thing 
to take with you on going to a new place. If you know more 
than you pretend, it will soon be found out, and you will be 
the gainer; but, if you fail to make good your pretensions, not 
only your employer but all your fellow workmen will be 
"down on you," and things will be correspondingly 
unpleasant. 

DEOXIDIZED COPPER. 

The advantages to be obtained by the use of copper as 
nearly chemically pure as possible, are generally admitted, 
whether the metal be used as copper, or in the form of brass, 
bronze, or the many other alloys into which it enters.-^ The 
Deoxidized Metal Company, of Bridgeport, Conn., claims 
that the desired result is secured by the process which is used 
in its works. The castings of brass, bronze, etc. , made under 
this process, are most excellent, while the sheet cop]:)er and 
brass, and the wire made, when submitted to careful tests, 
show an unusually high degree of strength, copper wire hav- 
ing been tested up to 70,000 lbs. per scjuare inch, tensile 



I 



2l8 

strength. The deoxidized metal also possesses the property 
of great resistance to acids, so that it can be used for rnany 
purposes where ordinary metal is soon destroyed by the 
chemical action. Journal-bearings made from this metal 
have also been tested with very favorable results, while for 
bells it is claimed that the tone and quality is much superior 
to ordinary brass. 

HOW THE CHINESE DRILL WELLS. 

The French Abbe Hue, lately returned from China, thus 
describes the system of deep-earth boring practiced in the 
district in which he has for some time resided. A wooden 
tube, six feet in length, is first driven down through the sur- 
face soil. This tube is held at the surface of the ground by 
a large flagstone, having a hole in the center to allow the tube 
to pass through and to project a little above it. A cylindri- 
cal mass of iron, weighing about 400 lbs., hollow and pointed 
at its lower end, and having lateral notches or apertures, is 
jerked up and down in this tube at the end of a lever, from 
which it is suspended by a rope. This kind of "monkey" 
disintegrates the rock, the debris of which, converted into 
sludge by water poured in, finds its way through the lateral 
apertures into the interior of the cylinder. By raising the 
latter at intervals this sludge is removed from the bore-hole. 
The rate of boring a rock of ordinary hardness is one foot in 
twelve hours. Only one man is employed at one time to work 
the lever. By this means wells of 1,800 feet deep are sunk in 
about two years by the labor of three men, relieving one 
another every six hours. 

COKE AND SOFT COAL MIXED. 

If coke and soft coal are mixed in equal proportions, it is 
said, the gi-eat heat of the coke will entirely consume the 
smoke of the soft coal, all of which passes off when coal is 
burned by itself. A little dry wood added to the fire occa- 
sionally will also effect some saving. Fuel thus used will be 
much more economical than either used separately. 

HOW NON-MAGNETIZABLE WATCHES ARE 
MADE. 

Non-magnetizable watches are made with springs of 
palladium in place of steel. This is a metal of the platinum 
group, and is absolutely non-polarizable and rust proof. 



«K 



219 
HOW TO LACQUER BRASc 



iiig It is strange that not one druggist out of ten knows how 

f 5 compound and put up a first-class lacquer, but depends 

j^jintirely on the manufacturer, who, owing to the general lack 

Vubf knowledge regarding the matter, often imposes upon their 

^;ustomers, sending a vastly inferior article. Again, not one 

^ customer in ten knows how to apply lacquer, and the drug- 

■^ist is blamed, when the user's ignorance is the cause of 

I'ailure. Let both the dealer and the consumer keep the fol- 

, .owing constantly in mind when selling or using lacquer : 

Remove the last vestige of oil or grease from the goods 
^to be lacquered, and do not touch the work with the fingers. 
A pair of spring tongs or a taper stick in some of the holes 
is the best way of holding. 

Heat the work sufficiently hot to cause the brush to 
smoke when applied, but do not make hot enough to harm 
the lacquer. 

Fasten a small wire across the lacquer cup from side to 
side to scrape the brush on ; the latter should have the ends 
of the hairs trimmed exactly even with a pair of sharp 
scissors. 

Scrape the brush as dry as possible on the wire, making a 
flat, smooth point at the same time. 

Use the very tip of the brush to lacquer with, go very 
slow, and carry a steady hand. 

Put on two coats at least. In order to make a very dura- 
ble coat, blaze off with a spirit lamp or Bunsen burner, taking 
special pains not to burn the lacquer. 

If the work looks gummy, the lacquer is too thick ; if 
prismatic colors show themselves, the lacquer is too thin. In 
the former case, add a little alcohol ; in the latter, place over 
the lamp, and evaporate to the desired consistency. 

If the work is cheap, like lamp-burners, curtain fixtures, 
etc., the goods may be dipped. For this purpose use a bath 
of nitric acid, equal parts, plunge the goods in, hung on wire, 
for a moment, take out%nd rinse in cold water thoroughly, 
dip inhot water, the hotter the better, removeandput in alco- 
hol, rinse thoroughly, and dip in lacquer, leaving in but a few 
minutes ; shake vigorously to throw off all surplus lacquer, 
and lay in a warm place ; a warm metal plate is the best to 
dry. Do not touch till cool, and the job is done. Lac- 
quered work should not be touched till cold ; it spoils the 
polish. 

Sometimes drops will stand on the work, leaving a spot. 



s 



220 

These dmf^ are merely little globules of air, and can I 

avoided by shaking v/hen taken out. 
^ The best lacquer for brass is bleached shellac and alec 

f hoi ; simply this, and nothing more. 

^ In the preparation of goods for lacquering, care should b 

Jj taken to polish gradually, i. e., carefully graduate the fine 
^ ness of materials until the last or finest finish. Then, whe. 
^ the final surface is attained, there will be no deep scratches 

for, of all things to be avoided in fine work, are deep scratch 

beneath a high polish. 

^ THE REAL INVENTOR OF THE BESSEMER PRC 
^ CESS. 

ti William C. Kelly, inventor of the Bessemer process o 

fj making steel, and who died recently in Louisville, Ky., waf 
a^ years ago, the proprietor of the Suanee Iron Works and 
tc Union Forge, in Lyon County, Ky. The metal produced at 
C£ these works was taken from the furnace to the forge, where 
2^\ it was converted into charcoal blooms. These blooms had a 
^e great reputation for durability and quality, and were used 
^v principally for boiler plates and metal. It was while making 
(Ji the blooms at this place that Mr. Kelly made his great inven- 
s] tion of converting iron into Bessemer steel, which Judge 
a-r Kelly of Pennsylvania, at the Masonic Temple Theater last 
la, fall, termed the greatest invention of the age. I'he old pro- 
'p cess of making blooms was very expensive, owing to the 
tv gi*eat amount of charcoal required in its transformation, and 
th Mr. Kelly conceived the idea of converting the metal into char- 
at coal blooms without the use of fuel, by simply forcing powerful 
ar, blasts of atmosphere up through the molten metal. His idea 
was that the oxygen of the air would unite with the carbon 
in the metal and thus produce combustion, refirie the metal, 
and, by eliminating the carbon, wrought-iron or steel would 
be produced. When he announced his theory to his friends 
and to skilled iron w^orkers, they scoffed, and were struck with 
astonishment that a man of Mr. Kelly's learning and practical 
iron-making knowledge would suggest such an idea as boiling 
^^^ metal without the use of fuel, and by simply blowing air 
^^ through it. 

His friends thought him demented, and discouraged him 

from wasting his time and money upon any such visionary 

scheme. Mr. Kelly was confident that his idea was a good 

one, and began making experiments, which he kept up with 

. varying success for ten years, but the blooms were manufac- 

P^ tured without the aid of fuel. It was generally known as 



sa 
sn 
bu 



" Kelly's air boiling process," and was in daily use convert- 
ing iron into blooms at his forge. Mr. Kelly's customers 
learned finally of the process, and, not understanding it, they 
advised him that they would not buy blooms made by any 
)Ut the old and estabhshed method. This was the first diffi- 
ulty placed in Mr. Kelly's way, and he was consequently 
mpelled to carry on his work secretly, which subjected him 
c many disadvantages. Some English skilled workmen in 
^^. Kelly's employ were familiar with his non-fuel process, 
^ i went back to England, taking the secret with them. 
^ 3rtly after their arrival in Liverpool, Henry Bessemer, an 
Jaglish ironmaster, startled the iron world by announcing 
e discovery of the same process as Mr. Kelly's, and applied 
V patents in Great Britain and in the United States. Mr. 
elly at once made his application for a patent, and was 
anted one over Bessemer, the decision being that he was the 
'st inventor and was entitled to the patent by^ priority. 

The history of this remarkable invention is a lengthy one, 
nd it is generally admitted by persons cognizant of th": fac^s 
.1 the case that Bessemer' s idea was secured from the English 
ronworkers employed by Mr. Kelly. Certain it i^, however, 
hat Mr. Kelly's invention and patents have heaped honors 
md wealth upon Bessemer, and he has been regarded as 
:he gi-eatest inventor of the nineteenth century, and the 
proper credit was always accorded him. Mr. Kelly's process 
was but barely successful until after it was perfected by Rob- 
ert Musshult, a prominent English iron worker. Concern- 
ing the claims of the different persons, a prominent iron and 
steel manufacturer, the late James Park, of Pittsburg, once 
said: " The world will some day learn the truth, and in ages 
to come a wreath of fame will crown William Kelly, the true 
inventor, and that truth will never be effaced by time." 

A NOVEL PLANING MACHINE. 

A machine for planing the curved surfaces of propeller 
blades, so as to render them of uniform thickness and pitch, 
has been invented in England, and is herewith described. 
The principal feature is guiding and controlling the tool to 
travel on the curved surfaces, by a cast-iron former. 

The machine is provided with two tables, which can be 
rotated through a given range by a worm-wheel and worm, 
so that the inclinations of both tables can be simultaneously 
varied, and to an equal degree. One of the tables carries a 
cast-iron copy of the back or front of the blade it is desired 
to produce, whilst on the other table the actual propeller is 



secured, one of its blades occupying a similar position on this 
table to that of the copy on the other. 

To insure the rigidity of the work, the table on which the 
propeller is fixed has its upper surface shaped to correspond 
with the form of the blade on it, and is finally brought to the 
exact shape necessary by a coating of Portland cement. A 
cut ^ in. deep can be taken without springing the blade. 
The propeller is also held by being mounted on a duplicate 
of the propeller shaft, which is secured to the table. The 
cutting is done by a tool of the ordinary type, work being 
commenced at the top of the blade, and a self-acting 
traverse is used to feed the tool toward the boss. 

The tool-holder is connected by a system of levers with a 
similar holder at the other end of the slide, carrying a 
follower, which moves over the copy, and thus guides the 
cutting tool. As the boss is approached, the inclination of 
the two tables to the horizontal is altered by the worm gear, 
so as to limit the necessary vertical motion of the tool. In 
this way all the blades of the propeller may be successfully 
machined, back and front, and will then be of identical form 
and thickness, and set at the same angle to the propeller 
shaft. 

One of the propellers lately turned out by this machine 
was 6 ft. in diameter, with an increasing pitch, the mean of 
which was 7 ft. 9 in., the thickness in the center of the blades 
varying from )| in. at the top to i in. at the boss. The 
breadth was 21 in., and the widest part and the cross section 
showed a regular taper from the center line to a knife-edge. 

The importance of accuracy and uniformity in the shape 
of the blades of propellers for high-speed vessels is now 
generally acknowledged, and the machine we have described 
promises to form a very useful addition to the plant of a 
modern marine engineering establishment. . 

HOW TO REMOVE RUST FROM IRON. 
A method of removing rust from iron consists in im- 
mersing the articles in a bath consisting of a nearly saturated 
solution of chloride of tin. The length of time during which 
the objects are allowed to remain in the bath depends on 
the thickness of the coating of rust ; but in ordinary cases 
twelve to twenty-four hours is sufficient. The solution 
( ought not to contain a great excess of acid if the iron itself 
\ is not to be attacked. On taking them from the bath, the 
ll articles are rinsed in water and afterward in ammonia. The 
iron, when thus treated, has the appearance of dull silver ; 
but a simple polishing will give it its normal appearance. 



223 

HOW TO ANNEAL STEEL. 

Owing to the fact that the operations of rolling or ham- 
mering steel make it very hard, it is frequently necessary 
that the steel should be annealed before it can be conven- 
iently cut into the required shapes for tools. 

Annealing or softening is accomplished by heating steel 
to a red heat, and then cooling it very slowly, to prevent it 
from getting hard again 

The higher the degree of heat the more will steel be 
softened, until the limit of softness is reached, when the steel 
is melted. 

It does not follow that the higher a piece of steel is 
heated the softer it will be when cooled, no matter how 
slowly it may be cooled ; this is proved by the fact that an 
ingot is always harder than a rolled or hammered bar made 
from it. ^ 

Therefore, there is nothing gained by heating a piece of 
steel hotter than a good bright cherry red ; on the contrary, 
a higher heat has several disadvantages : if carried too far, 
it may leave the steel actually harder than a good red heat 
would leave it. If a scale is raised on the steel, this scale 
will be harsh, granular oxide of iron, and will spoil the tools 
used to cut it. It often occurs that steel is scaled in this way, 
and then, because it does not cut well, it is customary to heat 
it again, and hotter still, to overcome the trouble, while the 
fact is, that the more this operation is repeated, the harder 
the steel will work, because of the hard scale and the harsh 
grain underneath. A high scaling heat, continued for a 
little time, changes the structure of the steel, destroys its 
crystalline property, makes it brittle, liable to crack in hard- 
ening, and impossible to refine. 

Again, it is a common practice to put steel into a hot fur- 
nace at the close of a day's work, and leave it there all night. 
This method always gets the steel too hot, always raises a 
scale on it, and, worse than either, it leaves it soaking in the 
fire too long, and this is more injurious to steel than any other 
operation to which it can be subjected. 

A good illustration of. the destruction of crystalline struc- 
ture by long-continued heating may be had by operating on 
chilled cast-iron. 

If a chill be heated red hot and removed from the fire as 
soon as it is hot, it will, when cold, retain its peculiar crystal- 
line structure; if now it be heated red hot, and left at a 
moderate red for several hours; in short, if it be treated as 
Steel often is, and be left in a furnace over night, it will be 



224 

found, when cold, to have a perfect amorphous structure, 
every trace of chill crystals will be gone, and the whole piece 
be non-crystalline gray cast-iron. If this is the effect upon 
coarse cast-irons, what better is to be expected from fine cast- 
steel ? 

A piece of fine tap steel, after having been in a furnace 
over night, will act as follows: 

It will be harsh in the lathe and spoil the cutting tools. 

When hardened, it will almost certainly crack; if it does 
not crack, it will have been a remarkably good steel to begin 
with. When the temper is dravNTi to the proper color and the 
tap is put into use, the teeth will either crumble off or crush 
down like so much lead. 

Upon breaking the tap, the grain will be coarse and the 
steel brittle. 

To. anneal any piece of steel, heat it red hot; heat it uni- 
formly and heat it through, taking care not to let the ends 
and corners get too hot. 

As soon as it is hot, take it out of the fire, the sooner the 
better, and cool it as slowly as possible. A good rule for 
heating is to heat it at so low a red that, when the piece is 
cold, it will still show the blue gloss of the oxide that was put 
there by the hammer or rolls. 

Steel annealed in this way will cut very soft; it will harden 
very hard, without cracking, and, when tempered, it will be 
very strong, nicely refined, and will hold a keen, strong edge. 

THE BURSTING AND COLLAPSING PRESSURE 
OF SOLID DRAWN TUBES. 

The following table gives the bursting and collapsing 
pressure of solid drawn tubes: 

Bursting Collapsing 

Diameter. Pressure. Pressure. Difference. 

3X 4800 3300 1500 

sVs — 4500 3150 1350 

3 4500 3500 1000 

2^ 5200 3500 1700 

2)4 5000 3600 1400 

2X 5900 4500 1400 

2 5900 4900 1000 

I^ .. 5600 4000 1600 

1 In this table it will be noticed that the bursting strength 

exceeds the collapsing strength, and that the difference in- 
creases with the diameter, as shown in the last column. 



225 

MINERAL WOOL. 

Mineral wool is the name of an artificial product now 
used for a great variety of purposes, chiefly, however, as a 
non-conductor for covering steam surfaces of whatever char- 
acter. It is largely used for this, and the underground steam 
pipes of the New York Steam Company are insulated with it. 

Mineral wool is made by converting vitreous substances 
into a fibrous state. The slag of blast furnaces affords a 
large supply of material suitable for this purpose. The 
product thus obtained is known as slag wool. For the 
reason that slag is seldom free from compounds of sulphur, 
which are objectionable in the fiber, a cinder is prepared 
from which is made rock wool. These products comprise 
the two kinds of mineral wool; they are not to be dis- 
tinguished from it, but from each other. 

The resemblance of the fibers to those^of wool and 
cotton has given the names of mineral wool and silicate 
cotton to the material, but the similarity in looks is as far as 
the comparison can be followed. The hollow and joined 
structure of the organic fiber, which gives it flexibility 
and capillary properties, is wanting in the mineral fibre. 
The latter is simply finely-spun glass of irregular thickness, 
without elasticity or any such appendages as spicules, which 
would be necessary for weaving purposes. The rough sur- 
faces and markings of the fiber can only be detected under a 
strong magnifying glass. 

Aside from its uses as covering for hot surfaces, it is also 
largely employed for buildings. A filling of mineral wool in 
the ground floor, say two inches thick, protects against the 
dampness of cellar; in the outside walls, from foundation to 
peak, between the studding, it will prevent the radiation of 
the warmth of interior, and will destroy the force of winds, 
which penetrate and cause draughts ; in the roof it will re- 
tain the heat which rises through stair-wells, bringing about 
regularity of temperature in cold weather ; the upper rooms 
will not receive the heat of the summer sun, and store it up 
for the occupants during the night, but remain as cool as 
those on the floor below ; the water fixtures in bath-rooms, 
closets and pantries will not be exposed to extremes of heat 
and cold. 

Analysis of mineral wool shows it to be a silicate of 
magnesia, lime, alumina, potash and soda. Tlie slag-wool 
contains also some sulphur compounds. There is notliing 
organic in the material to decay or to furnish food and com- 
fort to insects and vermin ; on the other hand, the fine fibers 



22^ 

of glass are irritating to anything which attempts to burrow 
in them. New houses lined with mineral wool will not be- 
come infested with animal life, and old walls may be ridden 
of their tenants by the introduction of it. 

Mineral wool is largely used for car linings, in which 
service it reduces the noise of travel greatly. Aside from 
those mentioned, it can be applied generally in the arts for 
all purposes where a non-conductor or a shield is required, 
and the experience of several years show that it is both 
serviceable and cheap. 

NICKEL PLATING SOLUTION. 

, According to "ih^ Bulletin Internationale de P Electricite, 
the following solution is employed for nickel plating by sev- 
eral firms in Hainault. It is said to give a thick coating of 
nickel firmly and rapidly deposited. The composition of the 
bath is as follows: 

Sulphate of nickel i lb. 

Neutral tartrate of ammonia 1 1 . 6 oz. 

Tannic acid with ether 08 oz. 

Water 16 pints. 

The natural tartrate of ammonia is obtained by saturat- 
ing tartaric acid solution with ammonia. The nickel sul- 
phate to be added must be carefully neutralized. This hav- 
ing been done, the whole is dissolved in rather more than 
three pints of water, and boiled for about a quarter of an 
hour. Sufficient water is then added to make about sixteen 
pints of solution, and the whole is finally filtered. The 
deposit obtained is said to be white, soft and homogeneous. 
It has no roughness of surface, and will not scale off, pro- 
vided the plates have been thoroughly cleaned. By this 
method good nickel deposits can be obtained on either the 
rough or prepared casting, and at a net cost which, we are 
told, barely exceeds that of copper plating. 

A NEW ALLOY. 

An alloy, the electrical resistance of which diminishes 
with an increase of temperature, has recently been discovered 
by Mr. Edward Weston. It is composed of copper, man- 
ganese and nickel. Another alloy, due to the same investi- 
gator, the resistance of which is practically independent of the 
temperature, consists of seventy parts of copper, combined 
wdth thirty of ferro -manganese. 



227 

PROOF OF THE EARTH'S MOTION. 

Any one can prove the rotary motion of the earth on its 
axis by a simple experiment. 

Take a good-sized bowl, fill it nearly full of water and 
place it upon the floor of a room which is not exposed to 
shaking or jarring from the street. 

Sprinkle over the surface of the water a coating of lyco- 
podium powder, a white substance which is sometimes used 
for the purposes of the toilet, and which can be obtained at 
almost any apothecary's. Then, upon the surface of this 
coating of powder, make with powdered charcoal a straight 
black line, say an inch or two inches in length. 

Having made this little black mark with the charcoal 
powder on the surface of the contents of the bowl, lay down 
upon the floor, close to the bowl, a stick or some other 
straight object, so that it shall be exactly parallel with a 
crack in the floor, or with any stationary object in the room 
that will serve as well. 

Leave the bowl undisturbed for a few hours, and then 
observe the position of the black mark with reference to the 
object it was parallel with. 

It will be found to have moved about, and to have moved 
from east to west, that is to say, in that direction opposite 
to that of the movement of the earth on its axis. 

The earth, in simply revolving, has carried the water and 
everything else in the bowl around with it, but the powder 
on the surface has been left behind a little. The line will 
always be found to have moved from east to west, which is 
perfectly good proof that everything else has moved the 
other way. 

WHY THE COMPASS VARIES. 

The compass, upon which the sailor has to depend, is 
subject to many errors, the chief of which are variation and 
deviation ; that is, the magnetic needle rarely points to the 
true north, but in a direction to the right or left of north, 
according to its error at the time and place. The deviation 
of the compass comprises those errors which are local in 
their character ; that is, due to the effect of immediately 
surrounding objects, such as the magnetism of the ship itself; 
this is sometimes very great in an iron ship. 

The variation of the compass varies with the position of 
the shi]:>, as shown by these curves of variation. Thus, from 
Cape Race to New York the variation of the compass changes 
from 30^ W. to less than 10^ W. ; and from Cape Race to 



228 

New Orleans from 30" W. to more than 5'^ E., the line of 
no variation being indicated by the heavier double line 
stretching from the coast near Charleston down through 
Puerto Rico and the Windward Islands to the northeastern 
coast of South America. 

To illustrate these variation curves more clearly, a chart 
has been made upon which variation curves are plotted for 
each degree. This illustrates very strikingly the positions 
of the magnetic poles of the earth, which do not by any 
means coincide with the geographic poles. On the contrary, 
there are two northern magnetic poles and two southern; up 
north of Hudson's Bay, at the point where these curves 
converge, there is one magnetic pole, and another to the 
northward of Siberia. Similarly, there are two in the south- 
ern hemisphere, and these four poles of this great magnet, 
the earth, are constantly but slowly shifting their positions, 
and just so constantly and surely does the magnetic needle 
obey these varying, but ever-present forces, seldom pointing 
toward the pole which man has marked off on his artificial 
globe, but always true to the great natural laws to which 
alone it owes allegiance. The small figures with plus and 
minus signs at various places on this chart indicate the yearly 
rate of change of variation, and this rate varies at different 
positions on the chart. Thus, near the Cape Verde Islands 
it is plus j^,-, ; here the variation increases fi^ of a minute a 
year; farther to the southward, near the South American 
coast, it is plus J^^^, and to the northward, near the Irish 
Channel, it is minus y yo- Fortunately, however, these 
changes are small and comparatively regular, and their 
cumulative effect can be allowed for, when large enough to 
make it necessary to do so. 

COST OF ELECTRIC STREET RAILWAYS. 

One of the street railways in New York is about running 
its cars to Harlem by an electric motor. Experts engaged 
in perfecting the scheme have made an exhibit, showing that 
it can be done at a cost of about two-thirds of the amount 
required to run over the same route with horses or cable. 
There will be sixteen batteries inclosed in one wagon, which 
will furnish sufficient power for two round trips. Sixty 
electric street railways are now in operation in the United 
States. Of the ultimate success, there can be but little 
doubt ; the one question of any special importance upon 
which the experts differ is the superiority of any particular 
system. 



229 

KEEPING TOOLS. 

Keep your tools handy and in good condition. This applies 
everywhere and in every place, from the smallest shop to the 
greatest mechanical establishment in the world. Every tool 
should have its exact place, and should always be kept there 
when not in use. 

Having a chest or any receptacle with a lot of tools thrown 
into it promiscuously, is just as bad as putting the notes into 
an organ without regard to their proper place. If a man 
wants a wrench, chisel or hammer, it's somewhere in the box 
or chest, or somewhere else, and the search begins. Some- 
times it is found — perhaps sharp, perhaps dull, maybe 
broken; and by the time it is found he has spent time enough 
to pay for several tools of the kind wanted. 

The habit of throwing every tool down, scnyhow, and in 
any way, or any place, is one of the most detestable habits a 
man can possibly get into. It is only a matter of habit to 
correct this. Make an inflexible end of your life to " have a 
place for everything and everything in its place. " 

It may take a moment more to lay a tool up carefully 
after using, but the time is more than equalized when you 
want to use it again, and so it is time saved. Habits, either 
good or bad, go a long ways in their influence on men's 
lives, and it is far better to establish and firmly maintain a 
good habit, even though that haoit has no special bearing 
on the moral character, yet all habits have their influence. 

Keeping tools in good order, and ready to use, is as neces- 
sary as keeping them in the proper place. To take up a dull 
saw, or a dull chisel, and try to do any kind of work with it, 
is worse than pulling a boat with a broom, and it all comes 
from just the same source as throwing down tools carelessly 
— habit, nothing more or less. To say you have no time to 
sharpen is worse than outright lying, for, if you have time to 
use a dull tool, you have time to put it in good order. 

AN IMPROVED SCREW-DRIVER. 
A screw-driver has been made in Philadelphia with the 
handle in two parts, said parts being capable of rotating one 
upon the other. A stop-pin and pawl limit the movement of 
the shank in one direction, while the top of the handle will 
move backward without turning the shank. The mechanism 
appears to be very similar to the principle of a stem-winding 
watch. 



230 

THE EFFECT OF MAGNETISM ON WATCHES. 

At a meeting of the Western Railway Club, Mr. E. M. 
Herr, superintendent of telegraph of the Chicago, Burling- 
ton & Quincy Railroad, read the following paper : 

A magnet is a body, usually of steel, having the property, 
when delicately poised and free to turn, of pointing toward 
the north, and of attracting and causing to adhere to its 
ends or poles, pieces of iron, steel, and some other substances. 
Materials which are attracted by a magnet are called mag- 
netic, and it is because the rapidly moving parts of a watch 
are in general, made, in part at least, of magnetic material, 
that these timepieces are affected by that peculiar force 
magnetism. 

Were magnetic substances only affected while a magnet 
is near them, there would be little difficulty as far as 
watches are concerned. Such, unfortunately, is not the 
case, as certain materials, steel more than any other, are 
not only attracted by a magnet, but become themselves per- 
manent magnets when brought into contact with or even in 
the vicinity of a magnetized body. It is to the latter prop- 
erty of steel, namely, becoming permanently magnetized by 
the approach of a magnet without coming in contact in any 
way with it, that causes trouble with watches. 

Again, a small piece of steel is much more easily mag- 
netized than a large one; consequently, the small and deli- 
cate parts of a watch are most likely to be affected. These are 
found in the balance wheel and staff, hair spring, fork and 
escape wheel, and are the very ones in which magnetism 
causes trouble on account of the extreme accuracy and reg- 
ularity with which they must perform their movements. It 
is, in fact, upon the uniformity in the motion of the balance 
wheel, that the timekeeping qualities of the watch depend. 

In a magnetized watch this wheel, as well as all other 
steel parts, become permanent magnets, each tending to place 
itself in a north and south line, and also to attract and to be 
attracted by the others; all of which, it is hardly nece5^sary 
to add, tends to affect its reliability as a timepiece. How 
small a variation in each vibration of the balance wheel will 
cause a serious error in the daily rate of a watch, is easily 
realized when attention is given for a moment to the number 
of double vibrations this wheel makes in 24 hours. 

This varies in different watches from 174,000 to 216,000, 
and the variation of a single vibration in this number will 
cause a greater error than is sometimes found in the best 
watch movements. It is therefore true that the variation in 



231 

each .vibration of the balance wheel of 1-200,000 part of 
the time of such vibration, or in actual time about the 1-500,- 
000 part of a second, will prevent the watch rating as a 
strictly first-class time piece. 

I wish to state, however, that there are very few watches 
made of ordinary materials which are absolutely free from 
magnetism. This may seem like a sweeping statement, but, 
after taking considerable pains to verify or disprove of it, I 
am convinced that it is substantially correct. 

Why this should be so becomes evident when we consider 
that a few sharp blows upon a piece of steel held in the di- 
rection of a dipping needle suffice to sensibly magnetize it, and 
then think of the numerous mechanical operations that have 
to be performed upcm each small piece of steel in the moving 
parts of a watch before it becomes a finished product. 

In order to determine, if possible, to_.what extent 
magnetism prevails in watches, I have examined and tested 
for magnetism 28 watches carried by persons other than train 
or engineer men, with the following result : Three were very 
seriously magnetized ; one to such an extent that it could not 
be regulated closely ; twenty barely perceptibly affected, 
possibly, but the normal amoimt due to the process of 
manufacture, and in but four could no magnetism be 
detected. \ 

On account of the steel parts of a locomotive being 
magnetized during the process of construction, and by severe 
usage in a similar manner to those of a watch, it has been 
claimed that the watches of engineers are constantly subjected 
to the action of the magnetic forces, and cannot therefore 
keep as good time as other watches. 

I have examined for magnetism the different parts of a 
number of locomotives in actual service, and, although they 
were in geiaeral found to be magnetic, they are so slightly 
charged as to render it almost certain they could have no 
influence upon the rate of a watch, and would surely produce 
less effect upon it than the originally slightly mai^netized 
parts of the watch itself. That this amounts to practically 
nothing, is proven by the large numl^er of finely rated 
watches now in use in which magnetism is apparent. 

As proof of the statement that engine-men's watches are 
not, as a rule, more highly charged with magnetism than 
those of men engaged in other occupations, the watches of 
twenty locomotive engineers were tested. Of these none 
were found heavily charged with magnetism; but two more 
than normal; tweJve with a barely percepiible charge, and 
in six none could be detected, showing actually less magnet- 



232 

ism in these than in the twenty-eight watches previously 
examined, none of which were carried on a locomotive, a 
result probably due to the fact that engineers, as a rule, are 
very careful of their watches, and are less apt to bring them 
in dangerous proximity to a dynamo than those not con- 
cerned in running trains, and in whom a well-regulated watch 
is less important. This, I take it, would surely be the case 
did they all understand that a watch is likely to be entirely 
disabled by bringing it near a dynamo or motor in opera- 
tion. It therefore seems important that all to whom accu- 
rate time is a necessity, should be carefully instructed as to 
where the danger lies. 

So much has recently been written about the magnetiz- 
ing of watches that many persons approach any kind of elec- 
trical apparatus with caution. Even a battery of ordinary 
gravity, or LeClanche cells, is regarded with suspicion, 
while' a storage battery is thought almost as dangerous as a 
dynamo. 

Others, on the other hand, do not even know that a 
dynamo is dangerous to watches. It should be borne in 
mind that it is not electricity which affects watches, but 
magnetism, and that magnets are the seats of danger. #It is 
the powerful electro-magnets in ^ dynamos and motors that 
magnetize watches, and not the strong currents of electricity 
generated or consumed by them. True, there is a mag- 
netic field about every current of electricity, but it is so 
very slight that no effect is produced on watches worn in the 
pocket. 

Having spoken of the evils of magnetism in watches, it 
is, perhaps, proper to add a few words regarding its preven- 
tion. The best and most certain way to prevent a watch 
becoming magnetized is to never allow it to come near a 
magnet. Unfortunately, in the present age, this is a diffi- 
cult matter, as no one can say how soon they may find it 
necessary to be in the vicinity of a dynamo in operation or 
be seated in a car propelled by an electro-motor. 

The only practical protection to watches from magnetism 
of which I have been able to learn consists essentially of a 
cup-like casing of very pure soft iron surrounding the works 
of the watch, which is known as the anti-magnetic shield. 
That this device is a protection from the effects of magnet- 
ism upon watches, there can be no doubt, but that it pre- 
vents magnetizing under all circumstances, even its inventor, 
I believe, does not claim. 

It therefore becomes important to know how far our 
watches are safe when supplied with this protection, and 



233 

where to draw the danger line for the protected, as well as 
the unprotected watch. In order to throw some light upon 
this question, the following tests were made: 

First, to discover to what extent magnetic bodies placed 
within the shield were protected from external magnetic 
forces ; second, in how strong a magnetic field it was neces- 
sary to place a watch protected by this device to effect its 
rate by magnetization. 

While no pretense of scientific accuracy or precision was 
made in these tests, it is believed they are sufficiently accu- 
rate for scientific purposes. 

The first test was made by filling an inverted shield half 
full of water, on the surface of which a very light magnetized 
steel needle was caused to float. In a similarly shaped cup, 
made of porcelain, another needle, in all respects like the 
first, was also floated. A horseshoe magnet was then 
brought near each, and found to affect each needle equally, 
at the following distances : in shield, 6 in. ; in porcelain cup, 
l^yz in. 

Distance below a ^-in. wooden board, upon which shield 
and cup were placed, at which needles could be just reversed 
by magnet — in shield, 3^ in. ; in porcelain cup, 8X in. 
With just enough water to cover the bottom of shield, the 
following distances for equal effects were observed : first 
exposure in shield, 8 in. : first exposure in porcelain cup, 
20 in. ; second exposure in shield, 12 in. : second exposure 
in porcelain cup, 30 inches. 

Since the intensity of a magnetic force varies inversely as 
the square of the distance, the above results indicate that to 
produce like effects, at equal distances, magnetic forces from 
five to six times as strong would be required, with bodies 
inclosed within the shield, than with those not so protected. 

The second test was made with watches of different 
makes, all furnished with the shield. Space will not permit 
my going into the details of these tests, which extended over 
several months. I will only say that they in general con- 
sisted in obtaining the rating and performance of tlie watch 
before and after it was exposed to magnetic influences. The 
exposure consisted in placing it nearer and nearer to the pole 
pieces of a powerful arc light dynamo and observing the 
rate before and after each exposure. After many tests of 
this kind, the conclusion was reached that a watch carefully 
and properly shielded could be safely placed not nearer than 
4 in. to the pole pieces of a 20 arc light Ball dynamo. 
When brought nearer they were without exception magnet- 



234 



ized to a" greater or less degree, the amount depending 
largely upon the time of such exposure. 

Watches are now being made, however, which it is 
claimed are entirely non-magnetic and unaifected by the 
strongest magnetic fields met with in practice. Several 
such watches were also examined and tested. They were 
furnished with a balance-wheel, hair-spring, fork and escape 
wheel made of an alloy of non-magnetic metals in which 
palladium is the principal component. The first of these 
watches tested was furnished only with a non-magnetic bal- 
ance and hair-spring, and had a steel fork and escape wheel. 
This watch is instantly stopped when brought near a power- 
ful dynamo. 

Other movements were then tried, in which all of the 
rapidly moving parts were of non-magnetic material. These 
could not be stopped by the field magnets of the most 
powerful arc light dynamos, although when placed in actual 
contact with the pole piece the balance-wheel was seen to 
vibrate less freely, probably due to the attraction of the 
staff and pivots, which were of steel. The rate of the 
watch was not, however, altered by this test. 

A hair-spring made of this non-magnetic alloy was also 
delicately suspended in still air and subjected to the action 
of a powerful horseshoe magnet without developing the 
slightest observable magnetic effect. 

One of our best-known American watch manufacturing- 
firms is now making a non-magnetic watch on a plan similar 
to that just described ; others will probably soon follow, 
hastening the day when a watch thoroughly protected or 
inherently insensible to magnetism will be as common, and 
considered as necessary to the successful keeping of correct 
time as 'he adjustment for temperature and position is 
already. 

HOW BARRELS ARE MADE. 
Barrels are now being made of hard and soft wood, each 
alternate stave being of the soft variety, and slightly thicker 
than the hard-wood stave. The edges of the staves are cut 
square, and, when placed together to form the barrel, the out- 
sides are even, and there is a V-shaped crack between each 
stave from top to bottom. In this arrangement the operation 
of driving the hoops forces the edges of the hard stave into 
the soft ones, until the cracks are closed, and the extra thick- 
ness of the latter causes the inner edges to lap over those of 
of the hard-wood staves, thus making the joints doubly 
secure. 



ing I 



FACTS ABOUT IRON CASTINGS. 

Some experience of the changes of shape which castings 
undergo "by reason of shrinkage strains is necessary, in order 
to proportion them correctly. I have seen numerous massive 
and very strong looking castings fracture during cooling, or a 
long time afterward while lying in the yard untouched, or 
while being machined ; the reason being that excessive con- 
traction in one portion had put adjacent parts into a condition 
of great tension. By putting an excess of metal into some 
vulnerable point of a casting, is introduced an element of 
weakness, and almost a certainty of its breaking by reason of 
the internal shrinkage strains. It is not the excess of metal 
in itself which gives rise to these strains, but the position in 
which it is placed relatively to other sections. Thus a lump 
of metal cast in juxtaposition to a thinner portion will not 
break the latter, so long as it is able to shrink freely upon 
itself. But if placed between two thinner portions, it may 
fracture them by its shrinkage. Hence the great aim is to so 
design castings that all portions thereof thall cool down with 
approximate uniformity. A founder learns much from the 
behavior of cast-iron pulleys and light wheels. As they are 
so light and weak, proportioning must be correctly observed, 
and when customers ask for a " good, strong boss " or " strong 
ar«ms," the request is one which, if complied with in the 
manner described ; that is, by unduly increasing the metal, 
will either fracture the pulley or wheel, or bring it near 
to breaking limit. In all castings "strong" is a relative 
term, that form or size being strongest which harmonizes 
as regards general proportions. In a light pulley, three 
different conditions may exist: i. All parts may cool 
down alike, or nearly so ; 2. The rim may cool long before 
the arms and boss; 3. The arms and boss may cool before 
the rim. xn the first case, the pulley will be strong and safe. 
In the second, the rim, in cooling, will set rigidly, but the 
arms and boss will continue shrinking, each arm exerting an 
inward pull on the rim, and various results may follow. 
First, the strain may simply cause the arm to straighten; 
or, in less favorable conditions, and especially if straight 
arms, or arms but slightly curved, be used, the arms may 
fracture near the rim, but seldom near the boss. Or, if the 
rim be weaker than the arm, fracture will take place, or the 
pulley may be turned, and then break. , In the third case, the 
arms and boss cooling before the rim, they are compressed 
by the shrinkage of the latter, and the arms may then become 
fractured, if curved; or, if straight, may prevent the rim from 



236 

coming inward, and so break it. In most cases, fracture 
occurs from the mass of metal in the boss. As a single instruct- 
tive example out of many, I may quote that of a pair of 
2 ft. 6 in. pulleys, fast and loose, which had been running for 
several years, the fast pulley had a boss 6 in. in diameter, the 
loose pulley one of 5 in. only, and both were bored to 3 in. 
By the accidental falling of a bar of iron, both were broken. 
The rim of the fast pulley was at once pulled in, while the 
loose pulley remained level at the point of fracture. This 
illustrates the presence of tension in the rim, due to the 
larger boss, and this tension had been present since the pulley 
was made. The pulley with the 5 in. boss was probably 
much stronger than that with the six in. boss. In fast pul- 
leys, and in wheels keyed on, the necessary strength around 
the keyway may be obtained by the use of keyway bosses, 
without increasing the entire diameter Where large bosses 
are unavoidable, as in some deep, double-armed pulleys, or 
in spur wheels keyed onto large shafts, shrinkage is assisted 
by opening out the mold around the bosses, and removing 
the central core, thereby accelerating the radiation of heat, 
and further by cooling them with water from a swab brush 
when at a low red or black heat. Many a casting is saved 
in this way Another method is to split the boss with plates, 
and bond or bolt it together afterward. When casting fly- 
wheels with wrought-iron arms, the rim is first cast around 
the arms and allowed to cool nearly down before the boss is 
poured. If the latter were cast at the same time as the rim^ 
it would set first, and, by preventing the arms from coming 
inward, would put tension upon the rim. 

Where aggregations of metal occur in castings, they may, 
if the castings be too strong to fracture, cause an evil of 
a secondary character, known as " drawing;" in other words, 
the metal is put into a condition of internal stress, and 
becomes open and spongy in consequence. '" Feeding " tends 
to diminish this evil; but much can often be done by light- 
ening the metal with cores, chambering out, or reducing the 
metal massed in certain places by other means. There is a 
difference in the behavior of cast-iron and of gun metal, of 
which advantage may be taken in small, light castings. 
Designs which will not stand in cast-iron or steel will stand 
in gun metal, hence the latter may be useful in cases of diffi- 
culty. 

Sharp angles very often lead to fracture. When brackets, 
ribs, slugs, etc., are cast on work, the corners should never 
be left square or angular, for, if there be much disproportion 



2Z7 

of metal, fracture will almost certainly commence in the 
angles. 

I have already alluded to the " straining " which large 
plated and heavy castings undergo, so that the sides and 
faces increase in dimensions, becoming more or less rounded. 
The main reason is, I think, that the metal round the 
central portions does not cool so rapidly as that at the 
sides. The outsides radiate heat quickly, and shrink to 
their full extent; but the middle rib or ribs, and the cen- 
tral portions of the plate, retain their heat longer, and 
hold the sides in a condition of tension, thus forcing them to 
bulge or become round. When the central portions cool, 
the outsides are too rigid to yield to the inward pull. This 
refers to framed hollow work. When plates " gather " or 
increase in thickness, it is due m^ainly to the lifting of the 
cope, from insufficient weighting. When a cubical mass of 
metal shows no shrinkage, this is due to the ^Dressure of the 
entire mass compressing the sand on every side. 

Briefly stated, then, in deciding the proper contraction 
allowance for a pattern, I should take mto consideration its 
mass, the manner in which it is molded and cast, the presence 
or absence of cores, and the nature of the same, its general 
outline, and the character of the metal. For a heavy solid 
casting in iron, I should allow considerably less than the 
normal contraction for iron ; for a similar casting in steel, 
more than the normal contraction for steel ; for a heavy 
casting in gun metal, less than the normal contraction for 
gun metal. The precise allowance in any case must be 
regulated by circumstances. For the vertical depth of a 
shallow casting, very little shrinkage, if any, should be 
allowed; for a deep casting, the full amount. Then, again, 
a mold, with dry sand cores of moderate or large size, will 
not allow the casting to shrink so much as if the cores were 
of green sand, or were altogether absent. For hard and 
chilled iron, the shrinkage will be at its maximum ; for 
strong mottled iron, at its maximum ; and for common gray 
metal, at about the average. 

FLEXIBLE GLASS. 

An article called flexible glass is now made by soaking 
paper of proper thickness in copal varnish, thus making it 
transparent, polishing it when dry, and rubl)ingit with pumice 
stone. A layer of soluble glass is then ajiplied and rubbed 
with salt. The surface thus produced is said to be as perfect 
as ordinary (rlass,. 



238 
SOME ELECTRIC LIGHT FIGURES. 

Now that modern improvements in the methods of dis- 
tributing electricity for incandescent lighting have rendered it 
practicable to establish and maintain central station plants 
at a profit, even in towns of not more than 4,000 inhabitants, 
it has become possible to ascertain, w^ith some approach to 
accuracy, the dimensions of the field which is open to be oc- 
cupied by this incomparable illuminant . 

Experience shows, that, when house-to-house lighting has 
been thoroughly worked up in any town, the capacity of the 
central station plant will need to be equal to an average of 
about one-sixteenth candle-power lamp for each inhabitant. 

According to the census of 1880 of the 50,000,000 
inhabitants of the United States, 13,000,000, or 26 percent., 
resided in 580 towns and cities having a population in excess 
of 4,000 each. 

At the normal rate of increase, we shall have, in five years 
from the present writing, a population of nearly 70,000,000, 
of whom some 18,000,000 will be gathered within the limits 
of towns of 4,000 inhabitants, and upward. Each of these 
individuals will represent one incandescent lamp, and the 
necessary power for operating the same. Even after deduct- 
ing the lamps which have already been installed, there will be 
required a total output of more than ii,oco lamps, and over 
1,000 horse-power each of steam engines, boilers and 
dynamos, every working day for the next five years, to 
supply the demand which, from all present appearances, will 
inevitably arise. This is entirely aside from the additional 
number of lamps which will be required for renewals — itself 
an enormous item. The change from gas to electricity, 
which is now going on in connection with domestic lighting, 
will be not a little accelerated by the action of the gas 
companies, who are everywhere evincing an increasing dis- 
position to take up electric lighting themselves ; and a very 
sagacious policy it is too, in view of the present outlook for 
gas illumination. 

TO CLEAN RUSTY STEEL. 

Mix ten parts of tin putty, eight parts of prepared buck's 
horn, and twenty-five parts of spirit of wine to a paste. 
Cleanse the steel with this preparation, and finally rub off 
with soft blotting paper. 



239 

HINTS ON PATTERN-MAKING. 

The pattern shop is one of the most important depart- 
ments in a plant for the manufacture of machinery. It is 
here that the plans of the mechanical engineer are first 
developed, and upon the skillful manner in which the pat- 
terns are constructed and those plans faithfully carried out, 
depends much of the future success in the manufacture of the 
machine. The skillful pattern-maker, by accurate calcula- 
tions for shrinkage, finishing and the contingencies of the 
foundry, may save a great amount of labor and annoyance in 
the machine shop. It is unreasonable to expect perfect cast- 
ings from imperfect patterns, and the molder is often blamed 
for imperfections of the castings when the fault maybe traced 
to an imperfect pattern. Holders as a class have sins 
enough of their own to answer for without the addition of 
the sins of the pattern-maker. Patterns are as a rule neces- 
sarily expensive, and should be carefully consti-ucted, so that 
they will retain their shape and proportions for future use, 
and to this end the selection of materials and the manner of 
joining the several parts together becomes an important item. 
For all ordinary purposes, especially for patterns of consider- 
able size, good, clear, well-seasoned white pine is the best, 
and to obtain the best results it should be seasoned in the 
open air in the natural way. The sap of all the woods con- 
tains a krge percentage of water, and to get rid of 
this is the object in seasoning. Pine wood, besides 
water, contains a large percentage of turpentine in ^ 
the sap, and in seasoning it, it is desirable to retain ^ 
as much of this as possible, as it dries to a hard substance 
when seasoned in the open air, and helps in a measure to fill 
up the pores of the wood, and renders it close and more 
impervious to water, and less liable to be affected by damp- 
ness. Kiln-dried lumber, although extensively used at the 
present time, is not as good for this purpose. The heat and 
moisture used for this purpose expels, not only the water, 
but other ingredients, which leaves the grain open and brash, 
and patterns made from such materials are more liable to 
absorb dampness and warp than otherwise. In constructing 
patterns, especially those of considerable size, it is cus- 
tomary to build them up of several pieces glued together; 
this makes more reliable work, provided good glue is used 
and proper care manifested in the manner of putting 
them together. No two pieces should be glued together 
with grain crossing at right angles, for, no matter how dry 
the lumber may be, there will always be some shrinkage, 



240 

ana, as lumber shrinks, almost entirely, in its transverse sec- 
tion, it is sure to warp, unless the glue gives way so as to 
allow each part to shrink in its natural direction. In either 
case the pattern will be unfit for further use until it is 
repaired. It is not good practice either, to glue up stuff for 
patterns with the grain of each piece running parallel with 
the other, as such patterns are deficient in strength, and are 
liable to split. The most practical way is to arrange the 
several pieces so that, when put together, the grain will run 
diagonally across each piece, at an angle of about twenty- 
five or thirty degrees. Pattern stuff prepared in this man- 
ner will have sufficient strength to prevent splitting by use 
and handling, and the tendency for warping will, to a great 
extent, be avoided. In building up circles, the cants should 
be short, and cut lengthwise of the grain as far as possible, 
so that the grain of each course as it is laid together to 
break points, may cross each other diagonally. It is cus- 
tomary with some pattern-makers to use nails or birds in 
each course as it is laid up, but pegs made of maple 
or hickory are much better, and, when the stuff is suffi- 
ciently thin to admit of it, the common pegs used in shoe 
shops are very cheap and convenient. The advantage of 
using pegs instead of brads or nails is, that, being driven 
in glue, they hold better, and the cants are not as liable to 
spring apart when exposed to the warm, damp sand in the 
foundry; besides, they never give the workman any trouble 
when turning it ; and experience has demonstrated that pat- 
terns put together in this manner are much more durable 
than otherwise. Some pattern-makers use but little judg- 
ment in the use of glue, and seem to have an idea that the 
more glue they can get between two surfaces the better; yet, 
every experienced mechanic knows that exactly the reverse 
is the case. With a good joint and clear, fresh, thin glue, 
the least that is retained between the two surfaces the bet- 
ter and stronger w^ill be the joint. In hot weather glue soon 
sours, turns black and becomes rancid; when in this condi- 
tion, its strength is impaired and it is unfit for use. Alco- 
hol mixed with it will prevent souring, but, as soon as it is 
healed up, the alcohol evaporates, and its effects are lost. 
The most effective preventive is sulphuric acid, but the 
acid should not be applied clear. For an ordinary glue-pot 
about fifteen drops of the acid mixed with a couple of 
spoonfuls of v.^ater may be applied; while this in no way 
impairs the strength of the glue, it will effectually prevent 
souring, and keep it fresh and clear. 

For small gear patterns that are to be in constant use, cut 



241 

patterns of iron or brass are no doubt the best and cheapest 
in the end; but, if wood patterns are required, they should be 
made of some harder wood than pine ; mahogany or cherry 
is considered the best for such work. After the hub is turned 
to the proper size and width of face, the blanks for the teeth 
may be glued on and dressed in their places. With large, 
wide-faced gears, it is not convenient to do so ; the blanks 
for the cogs are usually glued to dovetailed slips, or the 
dovetailed formed on the under side of the blank so that, 
when fitted to the rim, or dressed off, and laid out, they may 
be removed for the convenience of finishing them. The 
dove-tails should be a perfect fit, and the blank well fitted 
to the rim; otherwise they will vary the pitch when dressed 
and replaced again. In constructing patterns for heavy 
castings, such as lathe and engine beds, the careful and even 
distribution of metal in each part is an important considera- 
tion, and, in order to give some particular part the requisite 
strength to withstand a heavy strain, it is sometimes necessary 
to put more metal in some other part where it is not needed 
in order to prevent the casting from being distorted in shape 
or cracked by the unequal construction caused by one part 
cooling faster than another. With the framework for lighter 
machinery the same allowance for shrinkage must be provided 
for. But where a frame is composed of several parts, some 
of which are much lighter than others and yet it is necessary 
that the whole should be cast together, it is well to make 
the lighter portions in curves as far as the nature of the work 
will permit. Sharp edges and square corners should also be 
avoided as far as possible. A small cove in each corner will 
add much to the convenience of molding, besides adding to 
the strength of the casting and insure it against cracks, which 
are liable to open at these points by shrinkage in cooling. 

The pattern-maker should also exercise good judgment 
in making provision for withdrawing the pattern from the 
sand; but, as no two patternsare just alike in this respect, no 
definite rule can be followed. In intricate patterns, which 
require considerable skill and care on the part of the molder 
in withdrawing them from the sand, if the nature of the 
work will admit of it, considerable more draft should be 
allowed for this reason. But plain patterns may be nearly 
straight, provided their surface is perfectly smooth. For 
much draft, especially with gearing, is very objectionable, 
for it is impossible for such gearing to run together 
accurately, and bear the whole length of the tooth or 
cog, unless they are either chipped and filled, ^r planed 
straight. If gear patterns are made accurate and true, 



242 

and the face of the cogs perfectly smooth, there will be 
no difficulty in molding them if they are nearly or quite 
straight. All patterns before being used should be well 
covered with at least two coats of pure shellac varnish. 
After applying the first coat, and when it is perfectly dry, 
the surface should be well rubbed down with fine sandpaper, 
and all imperfections, such as nail holes and sharp corners, 
not already provided for, should be carefully filled with bees- 
wax and rubbed off smooth before the second coat of var- 
nish is applied. After a pattern has once been used, it is 
good practice to again rub it off with very fine sandpaper, 
and apply another coat of varnish. Many well-made pat- 
terns are ruined in the foundry by not being provided with 
the proper facilities for rapping and drawing. The molder 
must have some means for attaching his appliances for lift- 
ing it out, and, if suitable provision is not made for this pur- 
pose, he will screw his lifter in any part of the pattern that 
is most convenient, and the chances are, that it will split the 
first time it is used, or badly marred up. Iron plates should 
be let into all patterns with holes threaded to suit his lifters, 
and well secured either by screws or rivets, and, if a sufficient 
number are attached, the molder will respect the pattern and 
use them. Wood patterns should never be allowed to 
remain in the foundry; as soon as they are used, they should 
be taken to the pattern-room, brushed off and placed in such 
a position for future use that they will not become warped 
or sprung. 

ELECTRIC HAND LANTERN. 

A German patent has been granted to A. Friedlander 
for an electric hand lantern. This consists of a box of hard 
rubber carrying a small three-candle power incandescent 
light, together with a reflector and glass . protector. The 
elements in the box, carbon and zinc, produce the current 
necessary to feed the light. The box is divided into five 
compartments holding the liquid, and the electrodes are 
placed in such position that no decomposition occurs when 
the lantern is not in use. I'he circuit is closed when the 
electrodes are dipped in the liquid ; the current is stronger 
and the li2:ht brighter if the electrodes are dipped deeper in 
the liquid ; this depth and consequently the brightness of the 
light can be regulated by means of a button on the outside. 
The liquid is a combined solution of chloride of zinc, bichro- 
mate of soda in water and acid, and the lantern can hold a 
sufficient supply of this solution to last for about three hours. 



243 

TABLES OF GEARS FOR CUTTING STANDARD 
SCREW-THREADS. 

INTRODUCTION. 

It may, perhaps, be necessary to state that these tables 
are the fruit of much experience, and a deep-seated convic- 
tion that their want is sorely felt by many. Notwithstanding 
the vast improvements of modern screw-cuttinj^ machinery, 
much time is still wasted by the most experienced workmen 
in endeavoring to find wheels to but any particular pitch o. 
screw, or broken number, in consequence of the various 
changes to be obtained from the usual set of screw-cutting 
wheels, most of which begin with a 20-teeth, 25, 30, 35, 40, 
45. 50. 55» 6o> 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, no, 120, 130, 
140 and 150. This may be considered a full set, inasmuch as 
any screw may be cut with it. Supposing the 20-wheel to 
be put on the mandrel, for single changes, without the pinion, 
the first figure up to 95 will give the number of threads to 
the inch. A 20 and A 25 will cut 2^ ; 20 and 30, 3 to the 
inch, and so on in like ratio. When three figures are on the 
wheels, however, the first two will indicate the number to 
the inch ; as, 20 and 100 will cut 10 ; 20 and 1 10 will cut, 1 1 ; 
etc. For many common numbers this will save the trouble 
of looking to the tables, if a ^, ^, or other coarse pitch. 
If the book be referred to for the decimal of the ratios 
required, against it will be found the wheels that will cut it. 
If the number be required to the foot, then multiply by twelve. 

These tables are calculated on the assumption that a pin- 
ion of twenty teeth is used, and a driving-screw of two 
threads to the inch. 

Wheels, when affixed to the mandrel, are called mandrel- 
wheels ; those on the screw, screw-wheels ; and those inter- 
vening, intermediate-wheels. When the mandrel and screw- 
wheels are connected by one or more wheels directly, they 
are termed simple wheels. When attached by means of a 
pinion joined to the intermediate wheel, they arc calledcom- 
pound-wheels. 

No. I, is a table of simple wheels. The mandrel- wheels 
are in the first perpendicular column; and the screw-wheels 
in the top horizontal column. In the spaces where the per- 
pendicular intersects the horizontal, will be found the pitch of 
the thread which any two wheels will cut. 

The remaining tables are of compound wheels. The 
mandrel-wheels will be found in the first ]:)eri:)endicular column, 
the intermediate-wheels in the top horizontal column, and 
the .screw-wheels in the bottom column. The pitch of threod 



^J 



244 

to be cut having been found in the tables, on the left hand 
the mandrel- wheel will be found, on the top the intermediate 
wheel, and at the bottom the screw-wheel. 

All lathes have not a twenty-teeth pinion, in which case, 
the following rule will be of use as applying to any other 
pinion : 

Multiply the pitch of thread intended to be cut, by the 
new pinion,- and divide by twenty. Find the wheels in the 
tables corresponding with the quotient, and use the new pin- 
ion instead of the twenty. 

In some lathes the mandrel-wheel is a fixture. In these 
instances, suppose the mandrel-wheel to be the pinion, and 
attach the mandrel-wheel found in the table to the interme- 
diate-wheel. 

To ascertain the ratio of any series of wheels, multiply 
the whole of the driven wheels together, which will give the 
total number of teeth in the series. Then divide the result 
by the driving wheels multiplied into each other. The quo- 
tient will be the number of times the first wheel will revolve 
to the last. Suppose a wheel of twenty teeth to be driving 
a wheel of loo teeth, to which is attached a wheel of thirty 
teeth driving a wheel of 150 teeth, and the ratio be required — 
100 X 150 

=25 revolutions. 

20 X 30 

To find the number of threads a set of wheels will cut, multiply the 
ratio of the wheels by the pitch of the driving-screw. 

To cut double or more threads, divide the mandrel-wheel in as 
many parts as you require threads, and, as you cut the screw, shift the 
mandrel-wheel a division, while the screw-wheel remains stationary. 
This plan will insure equal division and regularity of cutting. In all 
lathes where the leading screw is two to the inch, and an equal number 
of threads being cut, if the saddled clutch be thrown out of gear, it will 
always fall into the right place. If an odd number of threads are being 
cut, it will fall right every other one. By attending to this rule, run- 
ning the lathe backward will ^e avoided, and a screw cut in about half 
the time. 

A difficulty frequently arises in finding the number of threads to the 
ix.ch or foot when a particular pitch or fractional number has to be 
matched. This can easily be ascertained by measuring onward, for, if 
it do not come right in one inch, notice how many there are between 
any division of rule. In measuring a screw, you discover there are 
twenty-eight threads in three inches. Consequently, if twenty-eight be 
divided by three, it gives 9.333 as the pitch. Against that number in 
the table will be found the wheels to cut it. Suppose a coarse pitch be 
required, say one thread in i^ inch, the wheels may be found thus: 
when there is less than one thread to the inch, see how many there are 
in twelve inches; as, 1.615 in. pitch into 12 in. is 7.384 to the foot. If 
divided by twelve, we have the dec. ,615, against which in the table 
will be found the wheels. 



245 



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247 

PINION 20. 

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249 
PINION 20. 



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230 
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251 
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252 
PINION 20. 



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8> 


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Mlr)M00lOT^cstH0O^ Oioo t>. t% tNVO vo m vo -* 


R 


vo invo M ro t^ vc N moo m h oo 
m vo M t^ Onoo en vowojco ir)Tj-Tj-M 
WVOm vot^coOOtN 1^00 coco CO vo lO M 


m 

ON 


rovo <N Chvo >* CO N M o OiOO 00 >. f^ tN.vo vo lO »0 

fOMWMMWHMMH 


a 


ro lo Cxvo O IT) t^oo CO m -<*- 
CO lO WVOVO NiDcn t^vo vo rocxs 
ro lo lo c^vo t^ CO t^ N t^ m moo ro 


8 


»000 coo t^lOrj-(N H O O>00 00 r^ t^ t^VO lO in 

COCSOJWHHMMHMW 




^ 


vo H CO Tj- VO lOOO m M vo tv 

vo lOH COM vONir)U-)io MID 

IDOO VO Wl-l'^J- 00t>. (NVOOlOMtx rhOO 





OOOtONONt^lO-^J-C^MwGO^ O^00 00 ^s tN.VO lO 

COCOWWHHMHMHHH 




^ 


VOWCO NCONVOw 

vo t>>c^ ooco-'i-covo 

vo vo 00 o o\ N looo cooo '^^vo -^t- 





N coco -"^Hoovom-^N N M OS o^co oo t^ t^vo 

'>^COWN«HMI-(HIHM^-^M 




^ 


CO N mvO CO lOOO H 00 M CO 

CO in (N ''i-vo CO r^ in M t^ t^oo 
m-Thco t>.wNinw Hcot^MinnMin 


^ 


ir)\o OvONOoovom'^cocNMOoOs C^oo t>. t^ 


^ 






^ 


vo t^ vo covO VOOmOON OOVOOO 

VO t^ M CO c~N vo mvo oo H vo CO 

« vo »n t^vo 00 CO ON inoo cooo os m m 




H 


0\ ov <N 00 Tj- M On t^vo in ^ CO w H o O Onoo 00 t^ 

■"^COCONMMHHHHHHMMMH 





COO CO inwvoN mvo 

in CO On m (n mvo m •<*■ m t>. 

m w CO m M H covo o m m t^ o 




M 


w wmovo coH ov t^vo m Tj- CO (N h m o onoo oo 






^ 


w coONt>.w oovom'^^oo 
Tj- CO o CO f-N mvo H in H 
w CO On wm movoco -^vo 


eg 


-*0 t>smcow Onoo 00 t^ c^vo vo vo m m '<*• 


to 


in '*■ t>sVO mt^r^ oo co mmwco 
t^ m M covo mONNOO vo ooMt^oNMO 
00 in M <N On M t^ mvo 00 h moNmo t^coc^cooN 


oo 


MmMoomr^NHOON a\oo t^ t-* t^vo vo m m tj- 

COWWMMMMMM 




:::::::::::: I : j : 1 I I 1 

omoiooinoioomoino momo 
« w CO CO -^ -"j- m mvo vo t^ tvoo oo o^ on o w n f^ 





C/2 



'siaaHAY "la^aNVH 



253 

PINION 20. 



10 






rn 


VO t^ N N t>. 00 10 

mio 10 MOO loiOMt^ 
t^vc t^ rooo rooo 10 h co moo 

M <> O\00 t^ t^vc VO *o «o 10 ■<«- 


10 

4- 


8n 


VO 


CO t^ lOVO 


t^ 
5 


w 
^ 


10 <N OV « 

ro CI « 1000 


moo '^ M ir^ m 10 
ro M VO VO ►«. M -^ 
W t^MOO lOMVO HI 


^^ 


^ 


^^s ^ 


10 


ro 


« M 000 00 t-. t>.vo VO VO 10 U-) 


^ 


^ 


\r> VO 10 N 


"<*• 
-<1- 
■^ 


00 00 


lovo 10 t^ N « O^VO 
oovow-<i-w-^ O"-" 

CSVO hVO NOO V-Ov"^ 




8 


« vb M 00 VO 
ro (N w M M 


-i' r«» M 


O^00 00 t^ t^vO vO u-> lO 


10 




^ 


f^oo moo 
to m c< r^oo 
c>.o 00 -^co 00 


VO 

ro On 


« 


ro t-. HI -^-vo 00 
lOOv-'J-OiiOHi ioon»o 





fO « N 


t^ 10 


•^ fO Hi H 

HI M M M 



M 


OVOO 00 t>» t^ t-»vo »o «o 




^ 


»0 

00 
(N (N 


„ 


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ro CO 

fOVO H 




VO VO lA 0_ 
m r^vo H or- 
>^^t^MVO csoo 10 







HI VO cs 


hv 10 ^ m N 


^ 


0^ O>00 00 C^ t«sVO VO 




^ 


VO N 
\0 VO rf 
(N 00 M H 


10 




m ro 


^ 


VO N HI 00 ■<^ MM 

VO VO -^00 0> >ooo -^ 
N to On moo '«^vO 







m 


w moo -^ 


N 


00 VO 10 rj- fO 


N 


H On OnOO 00 C«^ t^ 




10 


4; 

m 

m 10 

\r> ^ cry t^ 


M 
CI 


« 10 M 




m looo M 00 « m 
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Mmt-»MlOM(NlO 




% 


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^ m CO Pi 


a 





00 ^O 10 i»- ro 


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•^ 










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Sv 


tx 10 m fo m u-> 
00 t~^ mvo vovo cs 

M -*-00 « t^OO M 


10 


S> 


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'»^ CO CO « 


'^ 


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ro 


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t^ 














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rt- to r^ 

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VO t^ m ot to t^ t;« 
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30 



to 


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W W w M 


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f. t^vO VO xnin \r> ^ ■yf ^ 







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^ 


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^ 


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m 


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00 VO m 


m »^ 


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to 


ro 


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10 


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00 


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t^ t^ t«.vO VO IT 


to -^ 








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to 0' 


to 


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10 


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•Sa32HA\ TLaHQNVH 



254 

PINION 20. 




I 



•ST:aaHAv ^anaNVH 



255 

PINION 20. 



ID 


■^ 00 UTO « H rJ-OO M t>> CO 0\V0 10 





<T)^0 MOOVO TffOW M 000 00 t^ I^VO VO »0 m 

rO0<Nt-lMMMMMI-f 




10 
10 


roco i/^oo VO -<*• fo t- H -"l-vo ' CO 
m m (N r^oo M Mfom>--«i-P)io i^ 
t^vo 00 T^oo ooro Nmo-^otoHinoMA 


h 


inoo rno t^vD'ij-fnM m Onoo go t^ t^ t^vo 10 u-> 

rO(NW<NMMMMHMM 


i^ 


VO M mvo VO u-)oo 'O cs VO fo 
VO li-iM ro'^'voomioio MN 

u-)00 VO NM-* 0000 WVOOi^Ht^ '^^0^ 


% 


oooioNOit^iOTt-Nwwoo ovoo 00 t>s t^vo in 

rOrONNHHMMHMMK 


10 
10 


10 t^ C^ fO U-) O\00 M LOVO 00 10 t^ -^ 

Ci 10 lovo CO m t^o t>. ro t^ M VO cs 1000 tri 


9. 


Hrot^foooovommNMMOON Ovoo 00 t^vo vo 




S 


w VO M H inoo <^ w 10 -" 
tnvo H t^vo ooom inMoomcnMomM 


^ 


OMn m H ovoo t^ t^o vo inio-««»--4-'«frj-coromro 


s 


m\ow Mvowooo 

ro m vo in -<J-vo cs ►"! ro 

00 in ro Tt-vo -"^ vo N Ovvo Th « 00 in <N 


^ 


M vo '<^ M o^oo t-, t^^ vo lnln-^'<^T^-^fn^-)fo 


s 


f~> M moo m •♦• vo w w 

inin 00 MM (NQ»mov »i-iVO 

m ooM Minoi*f vo« t^.ioot^'^ 


K 


N 00 m <N M 000 t->vo vovo ir>in»n-<4-^'<*-mco 


v§ 


mvo Nooin -"i-rninvo 0\ 
N t^ vo vo t^ moo -* vo m 00 fO vo 


^ 


'.f Ovvo m 0* O^oo 00 t^vo vovo \rt m if>, ^ ^ ^ cT 

M H M M H M 


vS 


H m«voin<nvooovo m 

t>. in m t^ -^oo ^- vo vo m m (n 

in rj- in t-^ m « N moo Moom vOmMvowos 


m 

00 


in t^ ^ (N M o^oo t^ t^vo vovo lnlnln■«*-'<^m 


v8 


00 oom-^ N'fOvvo 

(N ^t^Mininooooo 

vo ^m 0000 mt^cit^m vo-^omM 


g. 


t-NMOO inmM c>oo t-^ t^^vo vo vo vn m tj- -<*• -^ 


vS 


ir, vo mo\N inoom m tj- 

00 mvo vo vo M- M m m co moo 

moo cscNVO'^-mmr^MVOMt^m t^nt^m 


0^ 


00 N o\vo tj- N t-i Onoo CO t^ t^vo >o m m '"J- Tj- 




dmdmdmdmQmOmomOmOOOO 
N N m ro Tj- T^ m mvo vo t^ t^oo 00 &> o\ m m rp 





•SiaSHAV laHQNVH 



256 

PIKION* 20. 



r 




,■ 


'C ^ - Ckso t^oo loi-^^-^^-or^frmrrrt r« 


in 


tN, « « m -«• it; ir, c c -w c t^ c r^ iTi t^ ic 


^ 


M n JM n 


10 


n -^-ao >o 10 t^ •* CMo *iaoto« cocmncs 


^ 


Ovtn ct M OM30 t^ tN,\o mio»o-^'«e--<«--«*-cncncnci 

<-l >-l IHT M . 


10 


10 mciO icon vciCrrswm r^ro 
« «noo iM <5 m t>. -^ c\ LI f^oc '«- r« vi t^ 
<o ir» t^ t^ m >* ei »oqc fnac u^ *- oc to r^ »- in. ^ m 


m 


o^^«co.=o..oc-,...v-.^^^^^,cncn 


to 


vc -o '-n r^ao c^:t^?iac mi i- oc <;' -"J- « en 


.g 


CI 1^ -^ « « c\oo 00 t^o ND «nvno-<«-'*-'«--<-cn«o 

Cl M *^ " « 


10 


t^ 00 moo oom c^c^^^!^. -^ ekrsr^»nOkC»> 


»n 
00 


prjco mnw c coc t^r^comiotO'«--^'*cnm 




n m 1.- - io «i lO - *n b> 
t^^oo 10 « tn o\ CI ^^c CO *- CO in«« OkWtHOO 


8. 




« r^ w sc - ■--, z ~ ■»- ^ .-0 T c « "^v u-> - 

vo c t^ -"9- f^- *' c cw» ao r^^o \byo in«oin-«e-V-^ 

CI n i-i n H M M - ---^-^-= 


oi 




m «rji> r- fi « -^00 r-.x ir** **«» "n « 
»^«ao»nrri« k c ccc ^^t^o^c<3»Oln»n■li-•<*- 


g 






•0 


in m ^ rr,<i rt a »^ « ao »* 00 
m v2 oc M 'c- oc t^ 'T-c - « *c m ^e-oo 
a CI r* n r« -<«- x <r^<i c •« »- «^ sn vnq^o 

6 -^6 «>.inrna « o Ovoo 00 ^ t^-'O <o ^ in in 4- 


c 














OioOtnC»n5vi0inciACir>Cv>. C OCO 
CI n CO ^ V m mo vo t> t^ac ac c?. ai c « « «n 





X 

a: 



•s^a3Hili la^aNvw 



257 

PINION 20. 



vo t^ O On u^ -^ 
VO ■<*- 1^ O N 00 
11 0\ r^ '^ M 00 

00 »o N O Onoo t^vo vo ioio»o^'<*"^fomroroN 



■^10 r^. 00 Ot^. .-.._.„ 
M r- ro M lovo to 00 M vo ■<*- u _ 
10 c^ ro fo 1000 Nt^fO vo-^i-iO\r^'^>- 



rroo 00 Nvom-^t^ 00'>«-»o vo mvo 
rn c< 00 r^vo lowro io-^m roror^ 
ro-<*- 00 NvOiit^m r^'4-M vOfOO 

O vo (^ M o 00 00 t>»v6 vo inioiO'^'^'^'^fOforo 

W M M M M 

VO N 10 T^ t^ moo MOON pim roMO\ 

10 vO'<J-N-«t- NOOrOt^iOw CSt-» lOVO '<f vo 

N HMVOTflDfxOiOOvOm t^T^NOOlON 

M t^.r^ N o 0-00 t^ t^vo vo Loiovo-^^Tf-^j-romm 

t>> M moo 10 ■+ vo w M 

lom oc NN NO\mo\ lovo 

10 OON MioO^-* VON txiOOt^-^ 

N 00 10 N M o onoo t^vo vovo iom>0'*-'^'^mm 

OJ H M M H rl 

miHiom vovovoiom t^oo t^ 00 00 oc 

10 m t^ t^ 10 m M t^oo m moo t^ i/") m iaoo 
t^ 00 1000 m lovo a»mt^mov»r)N t>.m onvo 

m Ov 10 m H o o^oo t>« t~^vo vo ir)mioio-«*-'<^mm 

N M H M I-. M 

voin w MmNNvo N»r)m lovo vo 
vo 00 M On m On -^O lOOO lovo -^vo '<^ 

vo N »0 M O mvo mVONCOion irjMOO 

in o vo 1*- N M o onoo t^ t^vo vo ir)io»oio-<h-^m 

N N 11 W M M w 

m->«- N voMt^mvoiOMOv mo 

mt-iii-iN vovo»omt^t>.i-ioo 00m 

10 m t^ t^ N M -^00 moo -^ m r^ m 10 n 

r^Noo mmw M o o^oo t>. r>.vo vo vo \ri \n \n ■^ -ot 

NNmmmmmm 

N mONt^M oovoiO"<*-co 

•>4- mo m t^ mvo H m t-i 

M m On «u-> toovom ■'t-vo 

o ■«^o t^mmw o o O'oooo t^t^vovovo lom■>l^ 

mONMHMMHW 



(I) 




s. 


»o 


vo t>^ 


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00 00 N vo 


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2 vo N 00" 10 Sn ^ 


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(N f 








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m, 
m 


to 

m ID 


t^vo Oi 
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ro »n t^oo m f^ •^ 
m m m t^vo vo moo 
m t^ N t^ m moo m 







moo 

m N 


m 

N N 


t>. 10 


'«■ N w 


Onoo 00 t^ tv t^vo m 10 


hI 













m 


% 


lOVO 

t^vQ 


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VO »o m t^ 




>o m m ■^ 00 On 

fx N m On m mvo 

moo moo moo n i^ 







t^ >A M 

m m N N 


00 vo 


10 m N H 





Onoo 00 t>. t^vo vo m 
































































m "^ m 
N M m m -«»• -^ 


10 n 10 
10 iDvO vo t^ 


r^oo w 8^ 0^ 8 2 S m 





siaaHAv laHQNviM 



!i 



PINION 20. 











t^ 








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f<^0O N N C I- 

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ID t^OO •* 1-1 VD N 

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t-» -"i- - C 00 t^ t^^ ID ID ID '^ 



*S^3aILAi la^QNVPi 



;/3 



I 



259 

PINION 20. 




*siaaHA\ 'laHQNViM 



26o 



PINION 20. 



% 


t^vo U-) MOO incsmu-) w 
»o iD^ ■* VON t^iomi-i tvmm 




10 M CO txvo vo lnlo■<^■<^^fO(r!cnfOfoc^ n w 


% 


vo w M 00 moo M vo ^ inoo Onvo -^ 

00 vo H w -^l-OO fOGMON t^^tOrOP) ONVO Tj- 


<g 


vo (N osoo t^vo lDlr)TJ--^^•,^'<^corofofn^^ « w 





m-* m wvot^t-^ro i>.oo h rooo 

rcM u-> oovoromrom f^t^ C^iC*", h 

vo ro t>. 10 1000 fivowooiow t^io-<i-Ooovo 


00 


c^ ro M 0,00 t>.vo vo lr>ln-^^■^^•r^•'<i-rofnfOfoe^ « 





10 loooci lO•O^^JO^ 

00 '«^ro■^ fooot-NvO 

'^ N Wio ir)MOO»r)N c^vo w t>N 

00* ""i- « 6 c^ioo tvvdvo ioio-4-->i-->*--<J-cofommci 


a 





vo t^ "^ Os r^"^ 00 vo u-i N ■'J-vo ro 

vom '=1- om-^wvomt^oj mvo pj 

N vo 00 »0 Tj-vo 0^ moo Tj-ot^-^N 00-^^|-lO^ 


^ 


OMn N ovoo t>.vo vo io»DiO'*-^-<^-*mmmN 

M M H M 


% 


moo 00 Nvom^m oo•T^lo vo mvo 
m (N 00 t^vo lowm lOTfM mmc>» 
mr^ 00 wvOMt^m t^-^w vomo 


8 


6 '^ m M d 00 00 ^^^d ^d ioioiO'<i-'^'^'»j-mmm 

(N M M M M 





VO M t^ m a^ ^vo vo 00 H vo ^ 

vo ^N t-. mvo 00 vo t^oo m vo 00 

vo vo 10 t^oo mt^«oolOl-loovo•«^ vom 





N t>. -^ N w ovoo 03 two vo toiom-^-^-^-^rom, 

p, . . H M 







HVO Noom -"^miovo o^ 
N t». vo vo c^ moo -^ vo m 00 m vo 


g 


-^ Ovvo m N a\oo 00 t^vo vovo xn iji \r) ^ -^ -^t r^i 

N M M H H IH 





ro t^ IT) T*-vo 00 m t^ r^ m t^ m 

ro U-) 10 lovo P) m M t^ t^ (i c<) 

00 moo XT, -^ Tfvo -f o\tfi >^ tx-^pj t^m 


& 


vo fx ■* m M ChOO 00 t^vo vovo \r> IT) ir, -^ yt ^ 

M CS M - M M M 


% 


vo ^ wm»ovo 00N-* wvot>. 

vo -^oomiH \o oo<NO^ (^vo 

-»l-vo -"i- N M mvo Tj- lopioovoovom 


i 


OONOOvO^tNMO OSOO 00 t^ txVO vo 10 »0 10 rf r^ 




I 


i?0 jno ^0 jA^^O ^0 ^d^^^^^ g g ^ 





•siaaHAv aa>iaKviM 



26l 

PINION 20. 



ITS 
CO 


ro 

to CO 


to to VO CO CO N 
N to W M CO M 
VOlOf^ TfCMOMOO 


lO C) 


to to VO 
00 to N Ov 





0\ ID 


M 


H onoo t^ t^vo to to to ■<♦• 


■«f 't- 


■«*- CO CO CO N 


CO 


00 




CO VO H 

CO CO VO lo 
to CO Thvo ■<*■ VO « 


w VO 


■<*■ W CO to CO 


s 


Hi vo 


-<*- 


N a\oo t^ t^vo o to lo 


-"4- ""l- 


CO 


^ 


to 


? 


to M N ro VO t^ 

t^ <^ t->00 VO 00 
COMH(NiO tOQVO 


N >ri Ov VO O 
lo moo to COVO 
CO t>. to H* t^ to 




CO 


N 00 
N M 


to 


CO H OvOO t^ t>«vo VO iOlOiO'^-<*--«^COCO 


CO 


lOVO 


CO 
CO 
CO 


00 0<0 00 CO to 
tOOO VO CO CO M 
MOOOOONMiO lOM 


t^ -"4- 


c^ ■^^ CO o\ 

to lOOO VO 
w OS rf t^ 


% 


rj- ChVO 
W H w 


■^ « Ovoo 00 C^ t^vo VO 


lO lO lO -<«■■* "^ CO 


lO 

CO 


^ 


to 


tOVO to VO N VO COVO N tOOO 

wvo ■^lot^ vot^coNiot^r^co 
(-.voioior^oto iOMOOioNt>>coo 


b 


VO H 


t^ 


to CO M o Ovoo 00 t^ t^vo VO lo to to '^^ '4- ■«^ 



0\ t^VO lO Tj- •^ CO CO CO C< I 



VO Th 
VO M 

VO t^ 



VO COVO t^vo N CJ ' 

CO CO t^ u->vO to PJ I 

VO COOOOVO lOCON 



VO 00 
00 VO CO 

M VO lO 



OOOVO lOlO'>*-'^COCOCOM W N N ( 



CO to 00 
COOO CO 

CO N tooo 



M OO t^vo to r 



■■^COCOCONNNNNNN 



CO N 
CO OV 
-■ 00 VO 



COVO VO M VO 
M VO N 00 i4- 
00 VO to -^ H 00 



N Ovoo VO VO 1 



,T^r^•<^cocococoM < 



W N N N I 



VO r^ to CO -^vo 00 00 VO covo 

vooo r^ Nco Mvoto looo CO vo o 

•*vo wtot^Nr^co t^TfNQoo r»vo co m 

rodoO •VOlOiO->*--^'^COCOCOCONNNNNN 



p< M VO r^ CO ■«*- I 

(N Ovvo O CO 0\ \ 

MVOOvOco t^tONi 



N CO 
- M CJVOO t^vo lO to -^ 'If 



•COCOCOCOM CI N M CS 



0»oOtoOioO>OQ"''OtOOtOQ'00000 
M N r-, CO -^ -^ lo lOvo VO r^ t^oo oo Ov C O w e< co 



siaaHAv naHQNviM 



262 
PINION 20. 





10 vo 


N t^ 00 00 M VO VO ^00 vo m ov Ti- 

w t^ in H vo invo ovo roN N inOoo 

1000 woo row ONt^in-^N H OiVO vo rf 


in 


O. t^vo 


in'^'^rororowNNWWcJWMMHH 




10 


10 T^ 


VO 00 H in ro 0\ 
invQ M fo Nf^roM cm 
wvoNoomw oovO'i-roNMOvc^in 


^ 




00 t^vo ir>-<*-TfrorororoNNNWMN hmh 


CO 


10 ro b* IT) "O H ro ro"0 rv -^ looo m 
t^ 00 ooiotoroc?* ioro"«i-t^MO\ t^vo 0\ ir> 
roMioiovo lOM c^ioM ooo^oirjroM 000 t^ 


vo 


M o\ t>>vo ioiO'>*-'<*-rorororoN n m n n ej h m 


ro 


vo 
in vo 

0) 00 H 


in-* M-roON VONWWOO t^MTf 
w •* inoo vo vo vc 00 w t^ in CN tj-oo 
M -^a\Tj-o t>sinw Geo t>.in-^(N coo 


a 


N cr.00 

H 


t>.vo in-<*--^-^ro'^rorow w w w w w m 


ro 


m N ro N 1000 w 00 vo ro mvo t^ 0^ 
CM lo voromr^t^roio oooohvonooooi-i 
M in t^ in inoo N t^roo t>.ino) on t^vo ro h 


t>^ 


rr, 00 


r>.vo inin><i-'^-*^rorororoN w w w w w 


lO 

ro 


ro 
N ro 


N Hvot^ ro ThHt^ inroro 
(N ^ ONO ro OvH-^ ri-rom 
CMVOovoro tv-inw- ovoo in ro H 


^ 


-^ H ONOO r^vo inin'^'>i-'<^rorororoN m n (N ei 


in 


in vo t«N H onoo tx vc CO in H in -*• o>oo 
t^ H roHinomt-s invo h ro t^ t^oo 
00 On in T^vo ON^OMON ONt«.inroM ONt^-^w 


00' 


-^ M c^oo c-nvo inmM-'^Ti-rororororoN N « oj 


i^ 


in 

t-^vo in 


in t^ vo t^co in ro m ro 
t>i N m Th ro in H invo w w 
00 rot^!NooinNO\t^inroMoovoTt- 


a 


in (N 


Ov t^ t^vo mm-^Tf^i-rororororow w w 


ro 


in ro 
01 00 
vo ro 


w 00 in H 00 rovo H "^f in w On 

Hoom-^^MinromHON wwc-^m 

in CO rovo m H f^ --^ m ctnvo m co t^ "n 


0\ 


vo ro H 


ovoo t^vo vo ininTh-^'-trororororow w 


10 


m vo 


t^ ro ro -^ vo in t^oo -* H vo (N 
in t^ vo rooo vot^HOOOO OOmOv 
^s c^ rooo ro UDroHoovoinn ovvo 


8 


. ^ 


t^ "* H 


00 tv c^vo mmm'^-^ri-cocororow n 























g ^R.^^^2>MvS^^^cg<^8^S8 2 g §. 





•siaaHAv la^QNVH 



C/3 
C/3 



263 
PINION 20. 





CO 


IT) 00 


H 10 Q 


^J 


tv lOVO 
10 t^ t^ 

30 vo fO H 


■^t 10 10 t>» 

00 t«* -"i- N 


§. 


^2 


0\ t>.vo VO u^ ■<<- 


"* "* 


ro ro ro fo 


fO 


N N N N W 


% 


lA ^ 

•<4- IH (>lOO 


10 m H 
N m 00 


10 ro 


N rovo 
tv vo lOvO 
CO u^ ro c 

Tj- ro fo m fo 


10 to 

to ON t^ M 
00 10 ro H 

CO W M N ci 


10 

On 


R. 




t>. 


vo 10 

LOVO 'l- 


vo 


10 O^ 
M 10 <N 

cs t^ 10 


ro t^ t^ t^ 
ro 10 N 
ro M tv 10 to 


8 


10 N 


00 


t^vo vo >0 


>0 '(T 


-^ ^ fo ro 


ro 


ro ro 0) N N 




^ 


10 N 


00 


10 ro 
N rovo 


loS" 


-+ 10 N VO 
w M CO vo 
t-^ -^ H 00 VO 


ro CO 
t^ U-) ro 
Tj- ro t^ to 





vo rn 


H O^00 t^VO "O 


lO 10 


M-'^'^rorOfOforON w 




% 


-^ 


T}- 


10 
<N 10 


oo 


(■« 10 

H 00 10 N 




On 01 On 
00 r>. vo 


§ 




00 Tf 


N 


r>00 ^sVO VO 10 


10 -1- -^ ^ 


-* 


ro ro CO ro N 


^ 


10 vo 


■^ 


tCS 00 o" 


., 


H 1000 

t~^ t^oo 

10 CN 00 10 


CO to to 

fO '>^ 10 
ro H On 10 CN 


^ 


OMO 


ro w 


O^0O Cv t-NVO vo 


IT) u-i ^ ^ 


^ 


■<l- ro ro ro ro 






CO 


00 




ro vo 

to CO "'fVO 


i 


10^^ 
VO N ONVO 


H 00 
(N w ro 
■<»- N 00 10 cs 





M \0 


■^ Cl 


000 t^ 


t^vo vo 10 10 -^f 


-<«■ 


^4- '^t- ro ro ro 







„ 


00 


to 00 


rooo 10 -^ 

MM M ON 

»0 On ■<*• vo W 




ro On tovo 
t^ 10 t-s -^ 


s, 


M 00 


10 N 


M OnOO 


C^vo vo vo to 10 


10 


-f M- rj- ro ro 




m 


vo vO 


M 10 

10 H 00 »o 


ro i-O 
ro 10 

fO w 


VO t^ 
VO to M- 
00 t^vo 


^ 


t>. t^vo t^ 

^ Tf (N M 


,^ 


t^ U-) 


^ Tl- 


ro ro w w 


M W 


















to 

fO 


10 
00 ro 


XO 


t^ ro 10 ro 
en >ovo N w 
On U-) H 00 vo ■* 


to § ^ 

(N H OvOO 


t^ »0 M 0) M 

to to f^ ro M M 
t^vo 10 Tf ro N 


10 


t-.vO 


10 T^ 


r<-, ro ro w 


01 N 


















m 




ro 
ro 
00 


moo H 
t^OO 00 
fOOO vo w 


VO N 
M On 
CnvO 


m t^oo 

rooo 10 

to fO M 


•*• (N 00 vo 
-^ -^ 10 On 10 I*- 
Onoo r^ 10 -^t fo 


a 




00 l>- 


10 10 


Ti- ro ro ro <N w 


N N N 01 






























































































Q 10 >0 »0 

VO vo t^ r>oo 00 


a 


10 Q / 
On 5 M N rn 





•siaaHAv aaHQNViM 



h4 



264 

PINION 20. 



s, 


N 00 -<^ HI H fovo 0* N 
00 ^ VO -<!■ M 00 t>.vO 10 '"*- m N w _ o> 


% 







5? 




VO»0^f)fTifOWMNN>-ll-IHMHMMHHW 




% 


10 m ^^ t^ « "^ "^"^ °^ JT* ri? 
10 wi^fo t^ioroM CO t^vo tn 10 fo N M 
c^\0 voii-fOfnfnM(NNMWMMMWM»Ht-iM 


s> 


%> 


Tj- tnvo 00 t>* MM fovo 10 On 

OOVO«0-<f'^fOrOfO««CNNNMMMHMMM 


»o 


% 


N fi XT) \OW t^iO-^NM 00CO^O«r)fO 

0\ t>.*d «A'*'«i-fornfnw«M«N«MMMMM 


vg 


^ 


10 t^t^m '<^lnoo rn o^vo ir) m t^ n 

t^CO »n 1000 ro Ch LO (M t^vO -^ N w 0^. t^NO XTi 


xn 




0\ t«.vo >^)..^.<l-fOf0^r)rr)c^NM^^Ne^l-ll-.Ml-l 


^ 


vo 00 U-) m »o 

lovo -i m Mt^fOM xn ^ 

\n -^ Nvowoomw covo•«^fON(-lc^ t^vo 


?. 


00 t^vO »r)'^'<*-fOfOfOm«NMNNNMMM 


^ 


com w M'.*- Nrs.00 tnu-)0 


K 


M o\ t^vo io»o-<<-'*mfOfOfn« w « w n w w m 


i 


t'. ro m N 00 fovo vo M \o 
mc'ivo o\N NvONoo ■<^ 

vo 00 rOOO CO vO-^N OOvOiO-^M 00 




00 


W OvOO ^OVO »0'«l-'<<-'<*-<^<*)rOfO« « N W « « m 





"<■ mVO VO mw t^ frj-^i-oOi.Ot-1 

\n 00 t^vo ro »o N ■<^ 00 fooo »o m « vo 
r» N 10 « rn^ M vo N OnvO ■'J-m 00 \ri rf i-> 0\ 


10 

00 




N 00 t>vo mio-^-^rocnrofomN w ci w n m 




s ^iii?i;5JS.ii5v2^aKcS«^8N^8 a § g, 





73 



•s^3aHAV i3^aNVi\[ 



265 



TABLE FOR MAKING THE UNIVERSAL TAPS, 
WITH THE MOST SUITABLE PROPORTIONS 
REQUISITE FOR GOOD WORKING TAPS 
USED BY HAND. 

From X ^^ i\" t^^ head is turned the same size as the 
gcrew; the ^, and all above, to pass through the holes 
screwed. As the same table shows the size of tap and bot- 
tom of screw, the workman will be enabled to make the 
tapping holes a size that will insure a full thread. The bot- 
tom of screw will give the size for drills, bits, etc. 





o o 


o 


biD 

G 






U in 


Wheels for cutting 
the screws. 


O 
u 

(V 
<D 

B 

d 

5 


"13 


t— 1 


d 
.2 

S 


C/5 


X 
H 


.3, 

X 

X and 6^4 

it 

15. 
32 , 

Yi and i, 
^and,V 

% 
+*and,^, 
X and ; 3^, 

I and §-^ 


2X 
2>^ 
2^ 

3>^ 
3X 

4.x 
7 


I^ 

I^ 

2 

2>^ 
2X 
2/8 
2% 
2}i 

3 '4 
3K 
3X' 
4X 


-ft 

A 
% 

,¥ and h 

n 

I 

1/ 


20 

18 
16 

14 
12 
12 
II 
II 
10 
9 

8 

7 

• 7 

6 


40 
40 
45 


80 
80 
80 


20 
20 
20 


100 
90 

90 




Simple wheels. 


7 


20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 






140 
120 


'% 










120 


H 






no 






no 


1« 






100 






90 

So 






1/8 






70 
70 

60 













266 



Table for Making the Universal 


Taps- 


— (Continued.) 




§1 


^-4 









Wheels 
for cut ting the 


«4-l 


-B in 





m 


^ 


, Ja 


screws. 


o 


^.s 


.X3 




tio!" 


&. 




1 
s 




b/3 


H! 


-"1 
•s- 


U5 

|1 


0) 


i 


1% 


IB 


7?/ 


434: 


13/S 


6 


20 


60 


iH 


9 , 


5X 


13/^ 


5 


20 


50 


iH 


I -A and 6^4 


9/2 


5?^ 


1/8 


S 


20 


50 


iVb 


lil ^ 


10 


6X 


1/2 


4/3 


40 


90 


2 


i^ and #2 


II 


63^ 


I^ 


4J^ 


40 


90 


2/8 


i^ and 3^2 


11/2 


7^ 


I^ 


4^ 


40 


90 


2% 


i^and^^ 


12 


73/ 


I?^ 


4 


40 


80 


2 3/8 


2eh 


12^ 


8^ 


I?^ 


4 


40 


80 


2^ 


2-h 


13 


1034: 


^H 


4 


40 


80 


2H 


2-h 


13 


Q^ 


I 3^ 


4 


40 


80 


2% 


2>| 


13^2 


9M 


13^ 


3/2 


40 


70 


2% 


2/3 


13/2 


10 


1« 


3/2 


40 


70 


3 


2;^ 


14 


10 


2 


3/2 


40 


70 



UNIVERSAL GAS-PIPE THREADS. 





Wheels for 


Cutting, Etc. 




Diameter. 


Man- 
drel. 


Interme 
diate. 


Pinion. 


Screw. 


Pitch. 


1%, and all abovei 85 
I i 20 


So 


1 20 


120 
140 
140 

120 


11.294 
14. 
14. 
18.412 

24. 


3/ 


20 
30 
30 




1 


H::::::. ..::::: 


60 


20 
20 


Small brass tube. . 



HOW PUMICE STONE IS MADE. 

Pumice stone is now prepared by molding and baking a 
mixture of white feldspar and fire-clay. This product is said 
to have superseded the natural stone in Germany and 
Austria. 



267 
MACHINE POETRY. 

We notice that some of our trade papers are dropping 
into "poetry," occasionally, on themes not unconnected with 
industrial pursuits. If they would thoroughly discourage 
every man who writes machine poetry, the world would gain 
something. Verses and rhymes are not poetry ; usually they 
are far from it, and one called " sawdust " is a case in point. 
Here is a sample verse : 

The mill-saw with its teeth of steel 

Bites through the log upon the tram. 
And drops the dust like golden meal 

Into the stream below the dam. 

Well, what of it ? This is a prosaic fact, not at all poetic, 
and the versifier has not clothed it with a poetic thought ; it is 
merely a rhymed statement of an obvious occurrence. Any 
one can write this sort of thing v^dth a running pen. Applying 
it to our own trade, we say : 

The steam from out the 'scape pipe floats 

Into the ambient air, 
And takes the form of billy goats. 

Which jump, and buck, and " rare.** 

[N. B. — Rear is the proper word, but it will not rhyme.] 
If persons who are determined to write machine poetry 
would only reflect several times before publishing once, we are 
sure that they would avoid mortification in the future. 

CEMENT TO MEND IRON POTS AND PANS. 

Take two parts of sulphur, and one part, by weight, of 
fine black lead; put the sulphur in an old iron pan, holding 
it over the fire until it begins to melt, then add the lead; stir 
it well until all is mixed and melted; then pour it out on an 
iron plate or smooth stone. When cool break into small 
pieces. A sufficient quantity of this compound being placed 
upon the crack of the iron pot to be mended, can be soldered 
by a hot iron in the same way a tinsmith solders his sheets. 
If there is a small hole in the pot, drive a copper rivet in it, 
and then solder over with cement. 

BIG BELTS AND FLY-WHEELS. 

Here are three interesting queries: 

Where is the widest machine belt in the world ? 

Where is the largest fly-wheel in the world ? 

Where is the most expensive trip-hammer in the world ? 

^ Here's a photograph of the largest leather belt in the 



268 

nniverse," saia a young man at 29 Ferry street, to Y,uom the 
first question was repeated, holding up a picture of a big coil 
of leather. " That belt is 72 inches wide and 100 feet long, 
and it weighs nearly 2,000 pounds, and is capable of trans- 
mitting over 1,200 horse-power. The belt is such a huge 
affair that it had to be made four ply thick — that is, three 
layers had to be added to the original single strip of leather in 
order to keep it down snug on the surface of the driving 
wheel when in operation. It's a corker, and anybody can get 
a good look at it by going over to the big carpet factory in 
President street, Brooklyn. The 60-inch belt that runs the 
machinery of the electric light station in Elizabeth street in 
this city, was the biggest leather belt in the world before the 
72-inch giant was brought out. The 60-inch mammoth was 
one of the wonders at the Centennial Exposition in 1876. 
We have since made a 69-mch belt for the rope factory at 
139 Front street, and a 50-inch belt for a big warehouse com- 
pany on the Brooklyn water-front. Whe^ you are told that 
ordinary single belts cost ten cents an inch, and the price 
doubles as you double the leather, you can get an idea of the 
neat sum of money it takes to own one of these mighty curios 
in the leather line." 

"Yes," said President John D. Cheever, of the Rockaway 
Steeplechase Association, " there are some tremendous leather 
belts in this world, but rubber belts are not far behind in the 
point of size either. Some months ago a New York belting 
and packing manufacturing company used up 88,000 pounds of 
rubber and cotton duck in a single order for three giant belts. 
One was a driving-belt 52 inches wide, 8-ply thick, and 298 
feet long. It weighed 4,000 pounds, and was the biggest thing 
in rubber ever produced. The other two were carrying-belts, 
each three feet wide and nearly a half mile long, and each 
weighed 11,000 pounds. To make them of leather would 
have required 1,000 selected hides. All the belts were shipped 
to West Superior, Wis. This same company made what is 
known as " the champion " carrying-belt of the world. It is 
now in operation at the Pennsylvania Railroad Company's 
grain elevator in Jersey City. It is 2,700 feet long, weighs 
16,000 pounds, and runs on small rollers. It is used to carry 
grain from one end of the elevator to the other, for delivery 
into the chute at the end of the dock. 

" Quite as remarkable as the great size of these rubber 
uelts, is the process of their manufacture. Great tensUe 
strength is imparted to the belts by a webbing of cotton 
duck, through the meshes of which the rubber is dr'ven by 
powerful machinery. This duck possesses usually more than 



269 

double the strength 'of the duck used for ships' sails. The 
rubber itself is prepared by an elaborate process. The sul- 
phur used to vulcanize it is all tested and weighed with the 
greatest care. It is mixed with metallic oxides, and makes a 
semi-metaUic compound that gives to the rubber a very con- 
siderable degree of firmness, and enables it to resist high de- 
grees of heat, and at the same time does not reduce its elas- 
ticity too much. The different thicknesses of rubber used to 
make the monster belts are laid over each other so that, by 
folding over the outside strip at the edges, a perfectly even 
and rounded edge is secured. In this form the thicknesses are 
passed between powerful heated rollers, and afterward are 
finished in a giant steam press. Steam is let into the bed and 
platen of the press in a way that enables the engineers to con- 
trol the temperature perfectly, and the pressure and heat are 
applied simultaneously to the rubber while it is under the 
heaviest strain that it is designed to subject jl to when work- 
ing machinery. 1 he fibers are thus pressed together as com- 
pactly as if they were steel instead of rubber and duck. " 

The second query about fly-wheels was found to be one of 
those that Lord Dundreary used to complain that no fellow 
could find out . There are giant fly-wheels all over the coun- 
try, and it would be like finding a needle in a hay-stack to 
pick out the boss of the lot. An expert said that fly-wheels 
thirty feet in diameter were often met with. The largest he 
had ever seen was a thirty-four foot mammoth in a shirt fac- 
tory at new Bedford, Mass. Grass grew everywhere in the 
tvown excepting just around this wheel. There were several 
giant wheels over thirty feet in factories at Fall River and in 
iron works in Trenton. As a rule, driving wheels are rarely 
made larger than thirty feet. The thirty-four-foot monster at 
New Bedford is a gear wheel. A thirty-foot monster, that 
weighed six tons, burst on December 23, in a knitting mill at 
Amsterdam, N. Y. It was almost as destructive as an 
explosion of gunpowder. j, 

The greatest and most costly trip-hammer in the world is 
the tremendous structure in the Krupp gun works in Ger- 
many, and the next largest is in England. America has a 
giant of her own in the Washington Navy Yard. 

What is as great a marvel about these immense hammers 
as their size is the ease with which they are operated, and the 
manner in which their ponderous movements can be con- 
trolled. In any one of the three historic machines, the 
descent of the hammer to the bed plate can be checked 
instantly at will, liy touching a small steel lever at the side of 
the hammer. The Emperor of Germany was amazed when 



270 

he saw the thing done at Krupp's works, on the occasion of 
one of the royal visits to that famous estabhshment. It is 
related that the Emperor took from his pocket an expensive 
gold watch, and laid it on the bed plate of the great hammer. 
The engineer told the Emperor that he would bring the ham- 
mer do\\Ti with all its power, and stop it just in time to save 
the watch from injury. The machinery was started, and the 
hammer descended with a swoop. If it struck the watch, it 
would certainly crush it as completely as if the whole factory 
had tumbled on it. The engineer kept a watchful eye on it, 
though, and, just as the Emperor thought his watch was going 
to be smashed, the engineer pushed the lever, and the huge 
iron hammer stopped instantly within a fraction of an inch of 
the surface of the timepiece. I'he Emperor was awed by the 
engineer's dextrous skill. 

" You may keep the watch," he said. " That is the most 
amazing thing I ever saw." 

Uncle Sam's employe in the Washington Navy Yard tries 
a more thrilling experiment than the engineer in Krupp's 
works did. When Americans go to Washington to see the 
sights, and he wants to show how perfect his control of the 
enormous hammer is, he puts his finger on the plate, and 
holds it there wathout wincing until the great hammer falls. 
Then he stops the fall dramatically just in time to save the 
digit. Everybody who sees the experiment, and recovers 
from the start it gives, declares that it is a tremendous piece 
of nerve, as well as skill, on the part of the engineer. 

" WASTE " NO LONGER A WORD IN MECHAN- 
ICS. 

The complete erasure in the word " waste " from the dic- 
tionaries, at all events in so far as it has any relation to indus- 
trial products, is, if not quite an accomplished fact, undoubt- 
edly becoming more and more imminent ; and we may thank 
the chemists of this generation for teaching us how to recover 
and utilize innumerable substances which, in their ignorance, 
our grandfathers threw away. Thirty years ago the manu- 
facturers of iron, gas and chemicals neglected all but the prime 
objects of their industries, wheregts to-day, on the system of 
taking care of the pennies, and allowing the pounds to take 
care of themselves, competition has induced us to regard our 
legionary by-products as so many mtegral parts or branches 
of each enterprise If the intelligent men who have " gone 
before," and who were looked upon by their contemporaries 
as wise in their generation, could by any chance reappear 



271 

among us, we might conduct them to our gas works, and 
with a certain pride, explain the origin of our sulphate of am- 
monia, our aniline dyes and our hundred other extracts from 
coal tar. From the contemplation of gas we could turn with 
them to some of our smelters and furnaces, and point to the 
mineral wool, the cement, the glassware, the pottery, the fire- 
bricks, and the fertilizer, all derived from our furnace slag, 
and, finally, entering a great chemical works, we should show 
them how the' once devastating gases, so fatal to life and vege- 
tation, are no longer sent free into the air, but are condensed 
and transformed into staple articles of trade, and how, by an 
ingenious and, to them, undreamed of process, we extract the 
precious metals from our exhausted sulphur ores. To their 
wondering question, " How can these things be? " we might 
reply that all these marvels result from a modern and enlight- 
ened policy, which, in many countries, has fostered every spe- 
cies of research in every branch of science, eiicouraged great 
minds to ponder over and gradually unravel the mysteries of 
nature, and stimulated a general thirsting for that knowledge, 
which, properly applied, must ever ameliorate our condition 
in this " vale of tears." 

COMBUSTIBILITY OF IRON PROVED. 

Combustion is not generally considered one of the prop- 
erties of iron, yet that metal will, under proper conditions, 
burn readily. The late Professor Magnus, of Berlin, Ger- 
many, devised the following method of showing the combus- 
tibility of iron : A mass of iron filings is approached by a 
magnet of considerable power, and a quantity thereof is per- 
mitted to adhere to it. This loose, spongy tuft of iron pow- 
der contains a large quantity of air imprisoned between its 
particles, and is, therefore, and because of its extremely com- 
minuted condition, well adapted to manifest its combustibil- 
ity. The flame of an ordinary spirit lamp or Bunsen burner 
'eadily sets fire to the finely divided iron, which continues to 
: lurn brilliantly and freely. By waving the magnet to and 
i'ro, the showers of sparks sent off produce a striking and 
brilliant effect. 

The assertion that iron is more combustible than gun- 
powder, has its origin in the following experiment, which is 
also a very striking one: A little alcohol is poured into a 
saucer and ignited. A mixture of gunpowder and iron filings 
is allowed to fall in small quantities at a time into the flame 
of the burning alcohol, when it will be observed that the iron 
will take fire in iK passage through the flame, while die gun- 



272 

powder will fall through it and collect beneath the liquid 
alcohol below unconsumed. This, however, is a scientific 
trick, and the experiment hardly justifies the sweeping asser- 
tion that iron is more combustible than gunpowder. The 
ignition of the iron under the foregoing circumstances is due 
to the fact that the metal particles, being admirable con- 
ductors of heat, are able to absorb sufficient heat in their 
passage through the flame — brief as this is — and they are 
consequently raised to the ignition point. The particles of 
the gunpowder, however, are very poor conductors of heat, 
comparatively speaking, and, during the exceedingly brief 
time consumed in their passage through the flame, they do 
not become heated appreciably, or certainly not to their point 
of ignition. Under ordinary circumstances, gunpowder is 
vastly more inflammable than iron. 

Another method of exhibiting the combustibility of iron, 
which would appear to justify the assertion that it is really 
more combustible than gunpowder, is the following: Place 
in a refractory tube of Bohemian glass a quantity of 
dry, freshly-precipitated ferric exide. Heat tliis oxide to 
bright redness, and pass a current of hydrogen through the 
tube. The hydrogen wnll deprive the oxide of its oxygen, 
and reduce the mass to the metallic state. If, when the 
reduction appears to be finished, the tube is removed from 
the flame, and its contents permitted to fall out into the air, 
it will take fire spontaneously and burn to oxide again. 
This experiment indicates that pure iron, in a state of the ex- 
tremest subdivision, is one of the most combustible sub- 
stances knowTi — more so, even, than gunpowder and other 
explosive substances which require the application of con- 
siderable heat, or a spark, to ignite them. 

HOW IRON BREAKS. 

Hundreds of existing railway bridges which carry twenty 
trains a day with perfect safety would break dovni quickly 
with under twenty trains an hour, writes a British civil en- 
gineer. This fact was forced on my attention nearly twenty 
years ago, by the fracture of a number of iron girders of 
ordinary strength under a five-minute train service. Simi- 
larly, when in New York last year, I noticed, in the case of 
some hundreds of girders on the elevated railway, that the 
alternate thrust and pull on the central diagonals from trains 
passing every two or three minutes had developed a weak- 
ness which necessitated the bars being replaced by stronger 
ones, after a very short service. Somewhat the same thing 



had to be done recently with a bridge over the river Trent, 
but, the train service being small, the life of the bars was 
measured by years instead of months. If ships were always 
among great waves the number going to the bottom would 
be largely increased. It appears natural enough to every one 
that a piece, even of the toughest wire, should be quickly 
broken if bent baek and forward to a sharp angle ; but, per- 
haps, only to locomotive and marine engineers does this ap- 
pear equally natural that the same results would follow in 
time if the bending were so small as to be quite imperceptible 
to the eye. A locomotive crank axle bends but one eighty- 
fourth of an inch, a straight driving-axle a still smaller 
amount, under the heaviest bending stresses to which they 
are subject, and yet their life is limited. During the year 
1883 one iron axle broke in running, and one in fifteen was 
renewed in consequence of defects. Taking iron and steel 
axles together, the number then in use on the railways of the 
United Kingdom was 14,847, and of these 911 required 
renewal during the year. Similarly, during the past 
three years, no less than 228 ocean steamers were disabled 
by broken shafts, the average safe life of which is said to be 
about three or four years. Experience has proved that a 
very moderate stress, alternating from tension to compres- 
sion, if repeated about 100,000,000 times, will cause a frac- 
ture as surely as bending to an angle only ten times, 

VALUE OF EMERY WHEELS. 

The increased quantity and quality of work that goes out 
of the modern machine shop is due to the skillful use of solid 
emery wheels. A grain of sand from the common grind- 
stone, magnified, would look like a cobble stone, a fracture 
of which shows an obtuse angle, whereas a grain of corun- 
dum or emery would look like a rhomboid, always break- 
ing with a square or concave fracture. No matter how much 
it is worn down in use, it does not lose its sharpness ; hence 
it is evident that the grindstone rubs or grinds and heats 
the work brought in contact with it, while the corundum, or 
emery wheel, --'ith its sharp, angular grit, cuts like a file or 
angular saw. 

There are two general classes of emery wheels in the 
market — one class of wheels has the grains of emery joined 
and consolidated by a pitchy material, as rubber, linseed oil, 
shellac, etc. These must run at a high speed to burn out the 
cementing material by friction, loosening the worn-out grains, 
and tlnis revealing new cutting angles. These are non-porous 



274 

wheels. Truing up this class of wheels is done with a dia- 
mond tool. 

The other class consists of two kinds, one made by mix- 
ing the emery wdth a mineral cement and water into a paste, 
which will harden and bind the grains together ; the other 
kind, by mixing the emery with a mineral flux or clay, mold- 
ing into shape, and burning in a muffle at a high tempera- 
ture. These are porous wheels, in which the grains of emery 
are held together by matter having affinity therefor. This 
class of wheels, unlike the grindstone, has sharp grains of 
emery bedded together among matter which, in some cases, 
is as hard and sharp as the emery itself. Such wheels cut 
very gi-eedily, and do not need to be run at any particular 
speed. 

The dresser, made of hardened steel picks, is the proper 
tool for truing up this class of wheels. 

Manufacturers in metal goods aiming at reducing the cost 
of production, would do well to look into the adaptability of 
the soHd emery wheels or rotary file, and other labor-saving 
machinery, before deciding on reducing labor wages. 

THE SECRET OF CAST STEEL. 

The history of cast steel, remarks a contemporary, pre- 
sents a curious instance of a manufacturing secret stealthily 
obtained under the cloak of an appeal to philanthropy. The 
main distinction between iron and steel, as most people know, 
is that the latter contains carbon. The one is converted into 
the other by being heated for a considerable time in contact 
with powdered charcoal in an iron box. Now, steel thus 
made is unequal. The middle of a bar is more carbonized 
than the ends, and the surface more than the center. It is, 
therefore, unreliable. Nevertheless, before the invention oiF 
cast steel, there was nothing better. In 1760 there lived at 
Attercliffe, near Sheffield, a watchmaker named Huntsman. 
He became dissatisfied with the watch-spring in use, and set 
himself to the task of making them homogeneous. "If," 
thought he, " I can melt a piece of steel and cast it into an 
ingot, its composition should be the same tbrov.ghout." He 
succeeded. His steel soon became famous. Huntsman's 
ingots for fine work were in universal demand. He did not 
call them cast steel. That was his secret. About 1780 a 
large manufactory of this peculiar steel was established at 
Attercliffe. - The process was wrapped in secrecy by ever^ 
mxcans within reach. One midwinter night, as the tall chim, 
neys of the Attercliffe steel works belched forth their smoke 



27*5 

a traveler knocked at the gate. It was bitterly cold, and the 
snow fell fast, and the wind howled across the moat. The 
stranger, apparently a plowman or agricultural laborer seek- 
ing shelter from the storm, awakened no suspicion. Scan- 
ning the wayfarer closely, and moved by motives of humanity, 
the foreman granted his request, and let him in. Feigning 
to be worn out with cold and fatigue, the old fellow sank 
upon the floor, and soon appeared to sleep. That, however, 
was far from his intention. He closed his eyes apparently 
only. He saw workmen cut bars of steel into bits, place 
them in crucibles, and thrust the crucibles into a furnace . 
The fire was urged to its extreme power until the steel was 
melted. Clothed in wet rags to protect themselves from the 
heat, the workmen drew out the glowing crucibles and 
poured their contents into a mold. Mr. Huntsman's factory 
had nothing more to disclose. The secret of making cast 
steel had been discovered. ^ 

IRON AND STEEL MAKING IN INDIA. 

Indian Engineerings in a recent issue, gives a most 
interesting account of the manufacture of iron and steel in 
India, which we reproduce below: 

Notwithstanding the simplicity of their processes, the 
iron turned out by the natives is of superior quality, and is 
selling very cheaply; so, for instance, a mound of horseshoes 
sells at Rs. seven, and of clamp iron Rs. six-eighths. These 
low prices are accounted for by cheap fuel, the rich ores, the 
miserably cheap labor, and the absence of managing expenses. 

There are reasons to believe that " Wootz " (Indian 
cast steel) has been exported to Asia Minor more than 2,000 
years ago; how long, however, its manufacture has been 
commenced, cannot be traced. 

The following is a description of the method for making 
" Wootz" employed by the natives at Hyderabad. 

The minute grains or scales of iron are diffused in a 
sandstone-like gneiss or mica schist, passing into a horn- 
blende slate. These rocks are excavated with crowbars, and 
then crushed between stones; if hard, this is done after prelim- 
inary roasting. 

The ore is then separated from the powdered rock by 
washing. This was at a village called Dundurti, but the pro- 
cess of manufacture was the same as that at Kona Samun- 
drum, twelve miles south of the Godavari, and twenty-five 
from Nirmal, which has been described by Dr. Voysey. The 
furnace was made of a refractory clay, derived from decern- 



276 

posed granite, and the crucibles are made of the same, ground 
to a powder together with fragments of old furnace and 
broken crucibles kneaded up with rice, chaff and oil. He 
states that no charcoal was put into the crucible, but some 
fragments of old glass slag were. A perforation was made 
in the luted cover. Two kinds of iron, one from Mirtapalli 
and the other from Kondapore, were used in the manufacture 
of the steel. The former was made from magnetic sand, 
and the latter from an ore found in the iron clay {? laterite) 
twenty miles distant; the proportions used of each were 
3 to 2. 

This mixture being put into the crucible in small pieces, 
the fire was kept up at a very high heat for twenty-four hours 
by means of four bellows, and was then allowed to cool 
down. Cakes of steel of great hardness, and weighing on the 
average i^ lbs., were taken from each crucible. They were 
then covered with clay and annealed in the furnace for twelve to 
sixteen hours; then cooled, and, if necessary, the annealing was 
repeated till the requisite degree of malleability had been 
obtained. The Telinga name for this steel was " Wootz," 
and " Kurs" or cake of it, weighing no rupees, was sold on 
the spot for eight annas. The daily produce of a furnace 
was 50 seers, or in value Rs. 37. 

Also Mysore is a country where the manufacture of iron 
and steel by the natives was of great importance owing to the 
excellent quality of its produce. 

^The iron was made from black sand, which the torrents, 
formed in the rainy season, brought down from the rocks. 
The furnaces in the Chin-Narayan Durga taluk were on a 
small scale, the charge of ore being 42^ pounds, from which 
about 47 per cent, of the metal was obtained. Work was 
carried on for only four months, the smelters taking to culti- 
vation during the remainder of the year. The stone ore was 
smelted in the same way as the iron sand, but the latter, it is 
said, was alone fit for manufacturing into steel. There were 
in this vicinity five steel forges, four in the above taluk, and 
^ne at Devaraya, Durga. 

The furnace, of which a figure is given by Buchanan, con- 
sisted of a horizontal ash-pit and a vertical fire-place, both 
sunk below the level of the ground. The ash-pit was about 
three-fourths of a cubit in width and height, and was con- 
nected with a refuse pit into which the ashes could be drawn. 
The fire-place was a circular pit, a cubit in width, which was 
connected with the ash-pit, being from the surface of the 
ground to the bottom two cubits in depth. A screen or mud- 
wall five feet high, protected the bellows-man from heat and 



277 

sparks. The bellows were of the ordinary form, a conical 
leather sack with a ring at the top, through which the opera- 
tor passed his arm. 

The crucibles, made of unbaked clay, were conical in form, 
and of about one pint capacity. Into each a wedge of iron 
and three rupees' weight of the stem of the Cassia Auricu- 
lata and two green leaves of a species of convolvulus or Ipo- 
maia were- put. The mouths of the crucibles were then 
covered with round caps of unbaked clay, and the junctures 
well luted. 

They were then dried near the fire, and were ready for the 
furnace. A row of them was first laid round the sloping 
mouth of the furnace; within these another row was placed, 
and the center of the dome, so formed, was occupied by a 
single crucible, making fifteen in all. 

The crucible opposite the bellows was then withdrawn, 
and its place occupied by an empty oneT'which could be 
withdrawn in order to supply fuel below. The furnace, being 
filled with charcoal, and the crucibles covered with the same, 
the bellows were plied for four hours, after which the opera- 
tion was completed. When the crucibles were opened, the 
steel was found melted into a button with a sort of crystalline 
structure on its surface, which showed that complete fusion 
had taken place. These buttons weighed about twenty-four 
rupees. There were thirteen men to each furnace, a head 
man to make and fill the crucibles, and four relays of three 
men each, one to attend the furnace, and two for the bel- 
lows. 

Each furnace manufactured forty-five pagodas' worth of 
1, 800 wedges of iron into steel. The net profit was stated 
to be 1,253 fanams, but into the further details as to cost it 
is not, perhaps, necessary to enter. The total production of 
steel in this vicinity was estimated to be 152 cwt. , or about 
;!f 300 per annum. 

The principal sources of the ores were the magnetic sand 
found in rivers, and the richer portion of the laterite. 

THE SWISS PATENT LAW. 

The Republic of Switzerland has passed a law for the pro- 
tection of inventions, thus following in the wake of other 
nations. The final disposition of the question, however, as to 
whether the law shall be operative or not, will first require the 
petitions of 30,000 voters asking its submission to the people. 
That point gained, the law must then be submitted to a vote 
and be app. roved by a majority It is not stated whether the 



278 

Swiss Government has a patent on this method of giving a law 
force. It will take three months to carry out this rigmarole. 
Material objects, and not processes, are protected. It is said 
that " this feature is due to the efforts of the manufacturers of 
aniline colors and chemicals, whose interests would be inju- 
riously effected by a law as comprehensive as that of the United 
States, which protects * useful arts ' and * compositions of mat- 
ter,' as well as tools and machines.'* 

HOW BREAKS IN SUBMARINE CABLES ARE 
DETECTED AND REPAIRED. 

The following is an account of how submarine cables are 
found and repaired at an immense depth: 

The break, which the " Minia " was sent to repair, 
occurred early last summer. The officers of the company 
first located the distance of the break from the stations on 
shore, on each side of the ocean. The details of the instru- 
ment by which this is done are not easily described, though 
easily understood in principle. The machine consists of a 
series of coils of wire, which offer a known resistance to the 
electric current. Enough of the coils are connected to make 
a resistance equal to the resistance offered by the entire cable 
when it is in working order, and thus, when the machine and 
the cable are connected, a balance is effected. But, if the 
cable should break, the balance is destroyed, because that 
portion of the cable between the shore station and the break, 
wherever it may be, will offer less resistance to the electric 
current than the entire cable would do. Enough coils of wire 
are therefore disconnected from the machine to restore the 
balance. The resistance of the part of the cable that 
remains intact is thus accurately determined by the number 
of coils remaining connected with the machine. Having, 
when the cable w^as intact, learned the resistance which a 
mile of the cable offers, by dividing the entire resistance by 
the number of miles of cable, it is easy to find how many 
miles of cable are still in good order, by dividing the entire 
resistance of the piece by the known resistance of one mile 

Having determined how many miles from the shore 
station the break is, orders are sent to go to the place, pick up 
the ends, and splice them to new piece. Having received such 
an order and acted on it, Captain Trott found himself and 
his ship, on July 25th last, in latitude 42^ 30' north, and 
longitude 46^ 30' west, or just to the eastward of the Grand 
Banks of Newfoundland, with one of the hardest jobs 
before him that he had had in some time, for sounding 



279 

showed that the water was about 13,000 feet, or a good deal 
more than two miles deep. He knew he was somewhere 
near the break in the cable, but he did not know absolutely 
within about three or four miles, because, while he had been 
able to determine his own position by repeated observations 
of the sun and stars, he could not tell how accurate the 
observations of the officers of the ship laying the cable had 
been. % 

The first work done was to get a series of soundings over 
a patch of the sea aggregating twenty-five or thirty square 
miles. The sounding apparatus consisted of an oblong shot 
of iron, weighing about thirty-two pounds, attached to a 
pianoforte wire in such a way that, when lowered to the bottom, 
the shot would jab a small steel tube into the mud down 
there, and would then release itself from the wire, and allow 
the sailors to draw up the tube with the mud in it. The 
moment the weight was released, the men-on deck stopped 
paying out the wire, and thus, knowing how much wire had 
been run out, they were able to tell the depth. It is a fact 
that it took twenty-four minutes and ten seconds for the 
weight of the sounding apparatus to reach bottom in 2,097 
fathoms of water. 

The ship was now ready to begin the search proper for 
the cable. She was run off at right angles to the line of the 
cable for a distance of five miles, and a buoy got down to 
mark the limits of the territory to be grappled over in that 
direction. Buoys were afterward set elsewhere to mark the 
other limits of the territory. The grappling iron was low- 
ered over the bows, the rope attached to it passing over one 
of the three big grooved wheels that revolve where the bow- 
sprit of an ordinary vessel stands. 

The grappling iron used is the invention of Captain Trott. 
It looks something like a four-pronged anchor. It has a shaft 
four feet long, and four arms about a foot long, that are set 
at right angles to each other at the bottom of the shaft. 
Right in each crotch formed by the arms is a little button 
that has a spring behind it that may be regulated in r>trength. 
The button projects a third of an inch into the crotch. The 
angle of the arms with the shaft is so small that a rock could 
not get down in so far as to reach the button ; but, when the 
cable is caught by the hooks, it presses down against the but- 
ton, and thus closes an electrical circuit through a copper 
wire running through the grapnel's rope and the grapnel 
itself, and a bell is set ringing upon deck. But the exj^eri- 
enced men in charge of the grappling are generally able to 
lell what the hook has hold of without the aid of the bell. 



2^ 

They judge by the strain on the rope, which is indicated by a 
dynamometer on deck. The ordinary strain on the dyna- 
mometer is from 3 to ^}^ tons when the grapnel is dragging ' 
freely over a smooth bottom as the vessel forges slowly aliead. 
Sometimes a rock catches on the hooks. This frequently 
breaks off an arm, but sometimes it fetches clear, the strain 
indicated by the dynamometer informing the old sailor man 
in charge whether an accident has happened or not. 

It took two hours and twenty minutes to get the grap- 
pling iron from the bow of the ship down to the bottom of the 
sea, i3,ocxD feet below. The cable used to drag it with is the 
patent wire and hemp invention of the captain. The drag- 
ging began on July 25th, the day of arrival, but they swept 
backward and forward over the territory for ten days without 
finding the broken telegraph cable. A good part of the time 
they wer^ steaming back and forth day and night, and the 
only time when they were not doing so was when the weather 
was too bad. On such occasions they went to the buoy at 
the supposed end of the broken cable, and hove to till the 
gale was ended. 

Finally, on August 5th, the bell rang, indicating that the 
grapnel had caught the cable. The grapnel drag rope was 
thereupon fastened to a buoy and thrown overboard. Then 
the steamer went off two miles toward the end of the broken 
cable and got out a cutting grapnel This is like the other 
one, except that there are knives in the crotches. When 
these crotches catch the cable and strain comes on them, th^ 
cut the cable off clean. ,•--:■; 

" Why did you cut off the cable there?,?* -was asked. 

" Because, if we had tried to get up the bight of the cable 
where we first found it, the cable might have broken under 
the strain. That cable was laid in 1S69, and is getting 
pretty well along in years. It would have been as apt to 
break on the shore side as the other, but, when we had only 
an end of two miles to deal with, we were sure of being able 
to get up without damage. We grappled European end first." 

Having cut off the cable, the vessel returned to the buoy 
on the grappling rope, and, getting the rope inboard again, 
led it to a drum six feet in diameter located on the upper 
deck and operated by a steam engine. Then they began tp 
wind in the grapnel rope and hoist the old cable to the bows, /. 
They started the drum at i :2o in the afternoon of August 5, 
and at 7:51 had the bight of it at the bow of the ship. Then 
the two miles and odd of end that was hanging down from 
the bow was fished up and stretched in lengths along the 
deck until the end was reached This was connected with a 



28l 

very complete cable telegraph office located amidships, and 
a second later the operators who had been on watch for days 
in the British station awaiting this event saw the flashes on a 
mirror in their office that told them all about it. 

Sometimes it happens that, when an end of the cable is 
picked up in this way, and an attempt is made? to communi- 
cate with the shore, it is found that there is another break, 
and" that they have only the end of an odd section lying 
loose. Then they have to drop that over, after testing it to 
see how long it is, and go on toward the shore and begin over 
again. In this case, however, they found that they had hold 
of a sound wire to Great Britain. Without any delay, the 
end of a new cable was spliced to the old end brought from 
the bottom. Two experts, one who is trained in splicing 
cores, and one who is trained in splicing the outside or 
sheathing, are employed in this work. ^ 

When the splice was completed and tested, and found 
perfect, the cable was started, running out around drums 
and grooved wheels controlled by brakes, and over the stern, 
the old end having been led fair through these sheaves before 
the splicing was done. Then the ship headed for shoal water, 
and ran away at from three to four knots an hour until over 
a part of the banks where work could be done more easily 
than where the water was more than two miles deep. Of 
course this involved the abandonment of a good many miles 
of old cable, but the old cable wasn't of very much impor- 
tance anyhow. 

^ Arriving in shoal water, the end of the new piece was 
attached to a buoy and put overboard. Then the old cable 
was grappled and cut as before, and a new piece spliced to 
it. Then the ends of the two new pieces were spliced to- 
gether and the job was complete. It had taken nearly two 
months to do it, although in the meantime two easier jobs 
were attended to, and a trip to Halifax for provisions was 
made, not to mention the encountering of the storm that 
damaged the rudder. I 

The " Minia " has a crew of ninety, all told, including the 
captain, three deck officers, a navigator, three expert elec 
tricians, four engineers, a purser and a surgeon. A black- 
smith and a boiler maker, with their tools, are carried. There 
are three big, round tanks to hold the 600 miles of cable 
carried, which includes sizes to fit all the old cables under the 
charge of this ship. There is a cell-room where the electricity 
for telegraphing is generated, and two dynamos with their 
engines, one to furnish electricity for a system of arc lights 
used whm at work at night, and the other for the incandes- 



2^2 

cent system that lights the ship below decks. The main 
saloon is large, and is comfortably and handsomely fitted. 
The captain has a cabin under the turtle-back aft, as fine as 
any captain could wish for, and the other officers have rooms 
below that are as well fitted as those usually occupied by 
naval officers. The crew are all expert men, and get pay 
that averages a good deal better than the pay in the packet 
service between New York and Liverpool. The entire crew 
is kept under pay the year round, the ship making her head- 
quarters at Halifax when not engaged in repairing cables. 
They are as comfortable a lot of sailur men as one could find 
any^vhere. 

THE LONGEST ELECTRIC RAILROAD IN THE 
COUNTRY. 

The longest electric railroad in this coimtry is one under 
contract at Topeka, Kansas. The length of the road is to be 
fourteen miles and will require fifty cars. The Thomson- 
Houston system has been applied. 



The breaking strain on various metals is sho\vn in the 
following table, the size of the rod tested being in each case 
one inch square, and the number of pounds the actual break- 
ing strain : 

Pounds. 

Hard steel 150,000 i 

Soft steel 120,000 

Best Swedish iron 84,000 

Ordinary bar iron . 70,000 

Silver 41,000 

Copper .. 35,000 

Gold 22,000 

Tin 5,500 

Zinc 2,600 

Lead S60 

To make varnish adhere to metal, add five-hundredths per 
cent, of boracic acid to the varnish. 

Machinery will do almost anything, and what machinery 
can't do a woman can with a hairpin. 

To find the weight of a cast-iron ball, HasweUsays — Mul- 
tiply the cube of the diameter in inches by 1365, and the 
product is the weight in pounds. 



283 

NUMBER OF REVOLUTIONS OF WATCH 

WHEELS. 
Very few who carry a watch ever think of the unceasing 
labor it performs under what would be considered shabby 
treatment for any other machinery. There are many who 
think a watch ought to run for years without cleaning, or a 
drop of oil. Read this and judge for yourself: The main 
wheel in an ordinary American watch makes 4 revolutions 
a day of 24 hours, or 1,460 in a year. Next, the center 
wheel, 24 revolutions in a day, or 8,760 in a year. The 
third wheel .192 in a day, or 59,080 in a year. The fourth 
wheel, 2,440 in a day, or 545,600 in a year. The fifth, or 
'scape wheel, 12,960 in a day, or 4, 728,200 in a year. The 
ticks or beats are 388,800 m a day, or 141,382,000 in a year. 

A VALUABLE POINT FOR HOLDERS. 

It is claimed that a saving, as well as a better job, can be 
effected by the substitution of the following for the coal dust 
and charcoal used with gi^een sand : Take one part common 
tar, and mix with 20 parts of green sand ; use the same as 
ordinary facing. The castings are smooth and bright, as tar 
prevents metal from adhering to the sand, prevents formation 
of blisters, and helps the production of large castings by 
absorbing the humidity of the sand. 

METRICAL AND CENTIGRADE EQUIVALENTS. 

As much of the scientific literature of the steam engine, 
the metrical system of weights and measures and the centi- 
grade thermometrical scale are used, we publish the following 
equivalents, which may be of use to our readers in readily 
reducing them to British units : 

1 kilogrammetre 7,233 foot pounds. 

1 foot pound 188 kilogrammetre. 

I French horse power (chevelvapeur) 75 kilo- 

^rammetres per second 9863 horse power. 

I British horse power 1.0139 chevaux. 

I kilogramme per cheval 2,239 pounds H. P. 

I pound per horse power 447 kilo, per cheval. 

I caloric, or French heat unit 3-968 British units. 

I British thermal unit. 252 caloric. 

French mechanical equivalent, 423,55 (usually 

# called 424) kilogrammctres 3063. 5 ft. pounds. 

' English mechanical equivalent, 772 footpounds 10.76 kilogrammctres. 



284 

A NEW ALLOY. 

An alloy, the electrical resistance of which diminishes 
wdth increase of temperature, has recently been discovered. 
It is composed of copper, manganese and nickel. Another 
alloy, due to the same investigator, the resistance of which is 
practically independent of the temperature, consists of 70 
parts of copper combined with 30 of f err o -manganese 

USE OF NATURAL GAS IN CUPOLAS. 

At Pittsburgh, Pa., natural gas has been utilized in 
cupolas for ordinary castings. The apparatus consists of a 
series of pipes, covered with fire-clay tiles, and, at the same 
time, ventilating the pipes with a current of air. A combus- 
tion chamber is necessarily connected with the furnace, to 
insure the required heat and prevent the chilling of the fur- 
nace. 

A NEW CEMENT. 

A cement called magnesium oxychloride, or white cement, 
has been discovered, and is now manufactured in California, 
as we learn from an exchange. It is composed of one-half 
{)4) magnesium oxide, which is obtained from the magnesite 
deposits in the Coast Range, and one-half (J4) magnesium 
chloride, obtained from various sea-salt manufactories 
throughout the State. It may be used for sidewalks, and for 
interior decorating, and in appearance resembles pure white 
marble. It. has a natural polish, and, above all, is much 
cheaper than any of the other substances now in use. 

HOW TO CAST A FACE. 

The person whose face is to be " taken " is placed flat 
upon his back, his hair smoothed back by pomatum to pre- 
vent it covering any part of the face, and a conical piece of 
paper or a straw, or a quill put in each nostril to breathe 
through. The eyes and mouth are then closed and the entire 
face completely and carefully covered with salad oil. The 
plaster, mixed to the proper consistency, is then poured in 
large spoonfuls to the thickness of one-quarter or one-half 
inch. In a few minutes this can be taken off as if it were a 
film. When a cast of the entire head or of the whole human 
figure is required, either a cast of the face is added to a mass 
of clay, which is to be modeled to the required figure, or the 
whole figure is modeled from drawings prepared for th^' 
purpose This is the w^ork of the sculptor. 



285 

When the clay model is finished, a mold is made from it 
as in the former cases. If the model be a bust, a thin ridge 
of clay is laid along the figm-e from the head to the base, and 
the front is first completed up to the ridge by filling up the 
depressions two or three inches deep. The ridge of clay is 
now removed, the edges of the plaster are oiled, and the 
other half is done in a similar -vvay. The two halves are like- 
wise tied together with cords, and the plaster is poured in. 
In complicated figures, say a " Laocoon," the statue is oiled 
and covered with gelatine, which is cut off in sections by 
means of a thin, sharp knife, each piece serving as a mold 
for its own part of the new statue. 

MELTING POINTS OF METALS. 



Metals. 



Aluminum. . . . 
Antimony . . . . 

Arsenic 

Bismuth 

Cadmium 

Cobalt 

Copper 

Gold , 

Indium , 

Iron, wrought. 
Iron, cast . . . . 
Iron, steel . . . . 

Lead 

Magnesium. . . . 

Mercury 

Nickel 

Potassium. . . . 

Platinum 

Silver 

Sodium 

Tin 

Zinc 



Centig 


rade. 


Fahrenheit. 


degrees 


700 


degrees 


1,292 




425 




797 




1^5 




365 




264 




507.2 




320 




608 




1,200 




2,192 




1,091 




1,995.8 




1,381 




2,485.8 




176 




348.8 




hS3o 




2,786 




1,200 




2,192 




1,400 




2,552 




334 




617 




235 




455 




—40 




— 40 




1,600 




2,912 




62 




1436 




2,600 




4,712 




1,040 




1,904 




96 




1 72. 8 




235 




455^ 




412 




773-6 



According to experiments recently made at the Royal 
Polytechnic School at Munich, the strength of camel hair 
belting reaches 6,215 pounds per square inch, while that of 
ordinary belting ranges between 2,230 pounds and 5,260 
pounds per square inch. 



286 
REMOVING CINDERS FROM THE EYE. 

Nine persons out of every ten with a cinder or any for- 
eign substance in the eye will instantly begin to rub the eye 
with one hand while hunting for their handkerchief with the 
other. They may, and sometimes do, remove the offending 
cinder, but more frequently they rub until the eye becomes 
inflamed, bind a handkerchief around the head and go to 
bed. This is all wrong. The better way is not to rub the 
eye with the cinder in it at all, but rub the other eye as vig- 
orously as you like. A few years since I was riding on the 
engine of the fast express from Binghamton to Corning. 
The engineer, an old schoolmate of mine, threw open the 
front window, and I caught a cinder that gave me the most 
excruciating pain. I began to rub the eye with both hands, 
" Let your eye alone and rub the other eye " (this from the 
engineer). " I know you doctors think you know it all; but, 
if you will let that eye alone and rub the other one, the cinder 
will be out in two minutes," persisted the engineer. I began 
to rub the other eye, and soon I felt the cinder down near 
the inner canthus, and made ready to take it out. " Let it 
alone and keep at the well eye," shouted the doctor pro 
tern. I did so for a minute longer, and, looking in a 
small glass he gave me, I found the offender on my cheek. 
Since then I have tried it many times, and have advised many 
others, and I have never known it to fail in one instance 
(unless it was as sharp as a piece of steel or something that 
cut into the ball and required an operation to remove it). 
Why it is so, I do not know; but that it is so, I do know, and 
that one may be saved much suffering if one will let the 
injured eye alone and rub the well eye. Try it. 

ELECTRIC LIGHTING IN FACTORIES 

A very interesting correspondence has lately been carried 
on in the columns of the Mamifacturers* Gazette as to the 
cost of electric lighting. The general tenor of the letters is 
very satisfactory to all who believe in the superiority of the 
electric light. Our contemporarary remarks: " Many users 
of the electric light write, their dynamos, being driven from 
the prime motors direct, there is seen no appreciable differ- 
ence in the amount of coal burned since the light was in- 
stalled. Some writers state that their electric lights cost less 
than gas at prices varying from $1.25 to $3 per 1,000 feet. 
Nearly all the firms of which inquiries have been made state 
that the electric light gives much better satisfaction than gas. 
Electric light wiring cannot be set down as costing so much 



287 

per light of so many candle-power, until a most careful 
examination and calculation has been made, the premises fully 
canvassed and plans drawn. Of all engineering, that relating 
to electric lighting offers the least inducement for ' office 
engineers,' who wish to do their work on paper at a dis- 
tance." Emphasis is laid upon the necessity for careful wiring 
with good wire, and it is noted that a good, non-oxidizable 
lamp fixture for paper mills and like places is a desideratum. 

INVENTIONS BY A NEGRO. 

The Dallas (Texas) News gives an interesting account of 
the mechanical devices and machinery on exhibition at the 
State fair, now in progress there, invented by a negro named 
Frank Winnie, who is described as a prodigy of mechanical 
genius, and, being totally uninstructed in p^sical science, is 
to machinery what Blind Tom is to music. He has in the 
fair a steam engine which turns a wheel at the rate of 3,300 
revolutions to the minute. It has no dead center, but its 
crank, so it is claimed, has as much pulling power at every 
point of revolution as the crank of an ordinary engine pos- 
sesses at an angle of forty-five degrees. Among his other 
inventions is a machine for fishmg by electricity. All that is 
necessary is to have the fish nibble the attractive bait. The 
next moment an electric bell on shore rings the death knell 
of the fish, and the fisherman, who is reading a novel under 
a tree, goes to the margin of the river and scoops in the 
finny beauties with a casting net. The inventor demon- 
strated the powers of this device by tests in the Trinity 
river, near Dallas. 

COMPOSITION OF NATURAL GAS. 

In a recent communication to the Franklin Institute, Pro- 
fessor Francis C. Phillips gives the results of his exhaustive 
inquiries into the chemical composition of natural gas, and 
also the relative value of the various gas wells as sources of 
fuel. He found that, as a rule, natural gas was a much less 
complicated compound than was generally supposed. The 
gas which is used largely in Pittsburgh, and comes directly, 
without any process of purification, from the Murraysville 
field, was found by him to be nearly pure gas, which contains, 
by weight, 74.97 per cent, of carbon and 25.03 per cent, of 
hydrogen. In this respect this well differed from all other wells 
which we examined. The gas supplied by the Bridgewater 
Natural Gas Company, of Rochester, Pa. , which is produced 
wholly from one sand 1,200 feet below the surface, Raccoon 



288 

creek, in Beaver county, contained, by weight, 9.91 per cent, 
of nitrogen, 90. 09 per cent, of paraffines, and trace of carbon 
dioxide, oxygen and sulphureted hydrogen, the paraffines con- 
taining 76.40 per cent, of carbon and 23.60 per cent, of 
hydrogen. The Baden wells, which are on the same anti- 
clinal axes as the Raccoon creek wells, but produce gas from 
a sand about 1,396 feet below the surface, show 12.32 per 
cent, nitrogen, 87.27 per cent, of paraffines, 41 per cent, car- 
bon dioxide, and a trace of oxygen, paraffines, containing, by 
weight, 76.44 per cent, of carbon and 23.56 per cent, of 
hydrogen. The Houston well, at Canonsburgh, produ- 
cing gas from a depth of 1,794 feet, shows 15.30 per cent, of 
nitrogen, 84.26 per cent, of paraffines, .44 per cent, carbon 
dioxide, and traces of oxyen and ammonia, the paraffines 
showing 76.80 per cent, of carbon and 23.30 per cent, of 
hydrogen. In a general way, it might be said that the samples 
examined, contained hydrocarbons of the paraffine series, 
among which methane predominated. 

A LONG WIRE SPAN. 

Indian Engineering says: " A remarkable engineering 
feat has just been carried out in China in the face of un- 
usual physical obstacles. This was the stretching of a steel 
cable of seven strands across the Luan River by Mr. A. de 
Linde, a Danish civil engineer, aided only by unskilled Chi- 
nese labor. The cable is strung from two points 4,648 feet 
apart. The height of one support is 447 feet above the 
present level of the river, and the second support 737 feet 
above it. The vortex over the water is 78 feet. The Chi- 
nese cable is the longest but one in the world. The tele- 
graph air cable across the Kistna has a span of 5,070 feet ; 
two similar cables across the Ganges, one 2,900 and the 
other 2,830 feet. A third line of 1,135 ^"^^^ crosses the 
Hooghly, and in the United States there is one over the 
Missouri of 2,000 feet." 



There was a fellow in our shop, 

His work was at the bench, 
And every time he struck a blow 

He used the monkey-wrench 

And when he found his wrench was gone^ 
With all his might and main. 

He went and got his neighbor's wrench 
And commenced to strike again. 



WHEN A DAY'S WORK BEGINS. 

The decision of the Supreme Court that a workman who 
has agreed to do work at a specified sum per hour, is not 
entitled to charge for the time spent in going to or returning 
from work, is one that equitably applies to some kinds of 
business, but not to others. Where house-building mechan- 
ics have several days' work to do at a building, and their 
tools and materials are on the spot, they are expected to re- 
port at the building in time to do a full day's work. Where 
they are doing odd jobs and are obliged to start from the 
shop in the morning, they do so at the regular hour for 
beginning work, thus reducing the hours of actual labor. 
But they must be paid for the whole day, and the person for 
whom the work is done must be charged for the time occu- 
pied in going to and from the job; otherwise, the " boss " 
would have to pay his journeymen, for say ten hours' work, 
though accounting for only six hours work' in his bill to cus- 
tomers. In some of the small trades a journeyman will go to 
half a dozen houses in a day, doing an hour's work in each, 
and spending the other four hours in passing from one job to 
another. In one way or another he is bound to be paid for 
the whole time. If he can charge only for the actual work- 
ing time, then his rates will be increased so as to compensate 
him for the time spent in service that is not to be paid for. 
The decision shows the importance of making agreements of 
this kind specific, both as to the rate of wages and the hours 
and kmd of service. 

CAMEL'S-HAIR BELTING. 

Camel' s-hair belting has been recently the subject of 
experiments at the Polytechnic school, at Munich, from 
which it appears that the strength of camel's-hair belting 
reaches 6,315 pounds per square inch, whilst that of ordinary 
belting ranges between 2,230 pounds and 5,260 pounds per 
square inch. A contemporary says the camel's-hair belt is 
said to work smoothly and well, and it is unaffected by 
acids. 

TO PERFORATE GLASS. 

In drilling glass, stick a piece of stiff clay or putty on the 
part where you wish to make the hole. Make a hole in the 
putty the size you want the hole, reaching to the glass, of 
course. Into this hole pour a little molten lead, when, 
iinless it is very thick glass, the piece will immediately drop 
out. 



290 
A MONSTER FEAT IN CHICAGO. 

RAISING A 20,000 TON BUILDING. 

The completion of the new Jackson street bridge, and the 
building of the approaches and viaduct, left the entrance to 
the McCormick manufacturing ofiices some six or seven feet 
below the sidewalk. The building had to be raised six feet 
and five inches, and this enormous and probably unparalleled 
task was successfully accomplished. The building was pre- 
pared for the work by the removal from the base- 
ment of all the machinery, and 300 men began turn- 
ing the screws of several thousand jacks, which were to 
slowly lift the immense weight to the new place. The build- 
ing is about 100x125 feet, and six stories high, weighing be- 
tween 16,000 and 20,000 tons. The whole had to be lifted 
at once, and there was an average of three jacks to the foot 
under the building. At a given signal the men turned their 
jacks a certain distance, and then waited for another whistle. 
The lift was about a foot a day, but it took a full day to re- 
set the jacks. The total expense of the work was in the 
neighborhood of $40,000. 

THE LIMA-CHICAGO OIL LINE. 

The weight of seventy-five miles of the 8-inch wrought- 
iron pipe-line which the Standard Oil Company is laying 
from Lima, Ohio, to Chicago, for the transportation of crude 
petroleum to the latter city, is 28.35 pounds per foot. If 
the weight of the other part of the pipe is to be the same, the 
total weight of the entire line will be 15,717 net tons. The 
length of pipe required is 210 miles. The oil will be forced 
through the line by one pump, to be stationed at Lima. 
The pump will be of mammoth size, and the largest ever used 
in the oil trade. Forcing oil such a distance with one pump 
was never before attempted. When lines of this kind were 
first employed, pumps were stationed every five miles. 

MINERAL PRODUCTION OF FRANCE. 

Provisional returns of the mineral production of France 
in the first six months of the year give the output of coal, 
including anthracite and lignite, at 11,077,731 tons, an in- 
crease of 798,734 tons as compared with the same period of 
1887. The production of pig iron was 821,824 tons in 1888, 
and 764,643 tons last year; of wrought iron, 428,076 tons, 
and 378,897 tons in the two years, respectively; and of steel, 
239,624 tons, and 240,313 tons. 



291 

LIABLE TO SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 

Cotton-seed oil will take fire even when mixed with 
twenty-five per cent, of petroleum oil ; but ten per cent, of 
mineral oil mixed with animal or vegetable oil, will go far to 
prevent combustion. 

Olive oil is combustible, and, mixed with rags, hay or 
sawdust, will produce spontaneous combustion. 

Coal dust, flour-dust, starch (especially rye flour), are all 
explosive when with certain proportions of air. 

New starch is highly explosive in its comminuted state, 
also sawdust in a very fine state, when confined in a close 
chute, and water directed on it. Sawdust should never be 
used in oil shops or warehouses to collect drippings or leak- 
ages from casks. 

Dry vegetable or animal oil inevitably takes fire, when 
saturating cotton waste, at iSo*^ F. Spontaifeous combustion 
occurs most quickly when the cotton is soaked with its own 
weight of oil. The addition of forty per cent, of mineral oil 
(density . 890) of great viscosity, and emitting no inflammable 
vapors, even in contact with an ignited body at any point 
below 338° F. , is sufficient to prevent spontaneous combustion, 
and the addition of tv/enty per cent, of the same mineral oil 
doubles time necessary to produce spontaneous combustion. 

Greasy rags from butter, and greasy ham bags. 

Bituminous coal in large heaps, refuse heaps of pit coal, 
hastened by wet, and especially when pyrites are present in 
the coal ; the larger the heaps the more liable. 

Timber dried by steam pipes or hot water, or hot air 
heating apparatus, ow^ng to fine iron dust being thrown off", 
in close wood-casings, or boxings round the pipes, from the 
mere expansion and contraction of the pipes. 

Patent dryers from leakages into sawdust, etc., oily w^aste 
of any kind, or waste cloths of silk or cotton, saturated with 
oil, varnish, turpentine. 

HOW COMBUSTION IN COAL IS PRODUCED. 

In a ton of anthracite coal, there is about 1,830 lbs. of car- 
bon, 70 lbs. of hydrogen and 52 lbs. of oxygen; while a ton] 
of good bituminous coal is composed of 1,600 lbs. of carbon, 
108 lbs. of hydrogen and 32 lbs. of oxygen. The combus- 
tion of coal proceeds from its combination with oxygen gas, 
and, when fuel of any kind combines with oxygen, heat is pro- 
duced. All bodies, substances, gases and lic[uids, are com- 
posed of separate particles, often of molecules of inconceiv- 
able smsJlness. These particles, it is scientifically conceded, 



292 

are in motion among themselves, and this motion constitutes 
heat, for heat is only a kind of motion. This internal vibra- 
tion of infinitesimal particles may be transmuted into a per- 
ceptible mechanical movement, or the mechanical movement 
may be converted into the invisible motion called heat. The 
oxygen combined with coal has a very considerable range of 
internal motion, and the combining process produces carbonic 
acid gas; and, the particles of this gas having a much smaller 
range of motion than the particles of the oxygen have, the 
difference appears in the form of heat. 

CAPACITY OF CYLINDRICAL CISTERNS. 

The following table shows the capacity in gallons for 
each foot in depth of cylindrical cisterns of any diameter: 
Diameter. Gallons. Diameter. Gallons. 



25 ft. 


3.059 


7 ft. 


239 


20 ft. 


1,958 


6>^ rt. 


206 


15 ft. 


1,101 


6 ft. 


176 


14 ft. 


959 


5 ft. 


122 


13 ft. 


827 


4Xft. 


99 


12 ft. 


705 


4 ft. 


78 


II ft. 


592 


3 ft- 


44 


10 ft. 


489 


2^ ft. 


30 


9 ft. 


396 


2 ft. 


19 


8 ft. 


313 







A GREAT BRIDGE. 

Comparatively little mention has been made of the new 
bridge, which is to connect Staten Island with New Jersey, 
and this is somewhat remarkable, considering the fact that 
the bridge is one of the largest, in the span covered by the 
draw, if not the largest in the world. The whole length of 
the draw is 500 feet. 

The bridge consists of four spans, resting upon five big 
piers of solid masonry. Only one of these piers, that sup- 
porting the draw, stands in the channel, which is here 800 
feet wide. On the edge of either bank stands another pier, 
supporting the ends of the draw when closed for traffic. 
The distance between each of these piers and the center pier 
is 250 feet, thus giving a clear waterway of over 200 feet on 
each side of the center pier. On each side of the draw-span 
is fixed a span 150 feet in length, making the connecting- 
links between the draw- span and the approaches. This 
makes the entire length of the structure 800 feet, with one 



293 

mile and a half of approach at the Staten Island end, and half 
a mile on the New Jersey shore. 

Four of these massive piers are already finished, and the 
fifth will be completed in a week. The foundations all rest 
upc^ bed-rock. Nothing has been spared, either in time, 
money or thought, to make the whole structure of first-class 
material, finished workmanship and colossal strength. The 
piers are tastefully finished in granite. The foundation for 
the central pier was laid by the pneumatic process, and it was 
no small undertaking to coffer-dam a sure resting-place for 
the massive superstructure, containing over 2,000 cubic 
yards of solid masonry, nearly 5,000 tons in weight, and 
reaching down 30 feet below the water. 

HOW TO SELECT ROPE. 

A German paper, in an article on the present methods of 
rope manufacture from hemp, and the determination of the 
different qualities and the probable strength simply from the 
appearance, lays down the following rules : A good hemp 
rope is hard but pliant, yellowish and greenish gray in color, 
with a certain silvery or pearly luster. A dark or blackish 
color indicates that the hemp has suffered from fermentation 
in the process of curing, and brown spots show that the rope 
was spun while the fibers were damp, and is consequently 
weak and soft in those places. Again, sometimes a rope is 
made with inferior hemp on the inside, covered with yarns 
of good material — a fraud, however, which may be detected 
by dissecting a portion of the rope, or, in practical hands, by 
its behavior in use ; other inferior ropes are made with short 
fibers, or with strands of unequal strength or unevenly spun 
— the rope in the first case appearing wooly, on account of 
the number of ends of fiber projecting, and, in the latter 
case, the irregularity of manufacture is evident on inspection 
by any good judge. 

THINGS THAT WILL NEVER BE SETTLED. 

Whether a long screw-driver is better than a short one 
of the same family. 

Whether water-wheels run faster at night than they do in 
the day time. 

The best way to harden steel. 

Which side of the belt should run next to the pulley. 

The proper speed of line shafts. 

The right way to lace belts. 

Whether compression is economical or the reverse. 

The principle of the steam injector. 



294 
THINGS WORTH KNOWING. 

Dominer has discovered that bronze is rendered malleable 
by adding to it from one-half to two per cent, of mercmy. 

An " inch of rain " means a gallon of water spread over a 
surface of nearly two square feet, or a fall of about loo tons 
on an acre of ground. 

A steam power plant is divided into five fundamental 
parts by a French author — the boiler, motor, condenser, 
distributing mechanism, and mechanism of transmission. 

Turpentine and black varnish, put with any good stove 
polish, is the blackening used by hardware dealers for polish- 
ing heating stoves. If properly put on, it will last throughout 
the season. 

A workman in the Carson mint has discovered that drill 
points, heated to a cherry-red and tempered by being driven 
into a bar of lead, will bore through the hardest steel or plate 
glass without perceptibly blunting. 

To harden copper, melt together, and stir till thoroughly 
incorporated, copper and from one to six per cent, of mand- 
ganese oxide. The other ingredients for bronze and other 
alloys may then be added. The copper becomes homogene- 
ous, harder and tougher. 

SIMPLE TESTS FOR WATER. 

Boiler-users who desire simple tests for the water they 
are using will find the following compilation of tests both 
useful and valuable : 

Test for Hard or Soft Water — Dissolve a small piece 
of good soap in alcohol. Let a few drops of the solution 
fall into a glass of the water. If it turns milky, it is hard 
water ; if it remains clear, it is soft water. 

Test for Earthy Matters or Alkali — Take litmus-paper 
dipped in vinegar, and, if on immersion the paper returns 
to its true shade, the water does not contain earthy matter 
or alkali. If a few drops of syrup be added to a water con- 
taining an earthy matter, it will turn green. 

Test for Carbonic Acid — Take equal parts of water 
and clear lime water. If combined or free carbonic acid is 
present, a precipitate is seen, to which, if a few drops of 
muriatic acid be added, effervescence commences. 

Test for Mag7iesia — Boil the water to twentieth part of 
its weight, and then drop a few grains of neutral carbonate 
of ammonia into a glass of it and a few drops of phosphate 
of soda. If magnesia is present, it will fall to the bottom. 



295 

Test for Iro7t — Boil a little nut-gall and add to the 
water. If it turns gray or slate-black, iron is present. 
Second: Dissolve a little prussiate of potash, and, if iron is 
present, it will turn blue. 

Test for Lime — Into a glass of water put two drops of 
oxalic acid, and blow upon it. If it gets milky, lime is present 

Test for Acid — Take a piece of litmus-paper. If it 
turns red, there must be acid. If it precipitates on adding 
lime water, it is carbonic acid. If a blue sugar paper is 
turned red, it is a mineral acid. 

Test for Copper — If present, it will turn bright 
polished steel a copper color. Second : A few drops of 
ammonia will turn it blue, if copper is present. 
• Tests for Lead — Take sulphureted gas and water in 
equal quantity to be tested. If it contains lead, it will turn 
a blackish brown. Again : The same result will take place 
if sulphate of ammonia be used. 

Test for SidpJnir — In a bottle of water add a little 
quicksilver, cork it for six hours, and, if it looks dark on 
the top, and on shaking looks blackish, it proves the presence 
of sulphur. 

JAPANESE LACQUER FOR IRON SHIPS. 

The Japanese Admiralty has finally decided upon coating 
the bottoms of all their ships with a material closely akin to 
the lacquer to which we are so much accustomed as a 
specialty of Japanese furniture work. Although the prep- 
aration differs somewhat from that commonly known as 
Japanese lacquer, the base of it is the same — viz., gum-lac, 
as it is commonly termed. Experiments, which have been 
long continued by the Imperial Naval Department, have 
resulted in affording proof that the new coating material 
remains fully efficient for three years, and the report on the 
su])ject demonstrates that, although the first cost of the 
material is three times the amount of that hitherto employed, 
the numl)cr of dockings required will be reduced by its use to 
the proportion of one to six. \ vessel of the Russian Pacific 
fleet has already been coated with the new preparation, 
which, the authorities say, completely withstands the fouling 
influences so common in tropical waters. It took the native 
inventor many years to overcome the tendency of the lac to 
harden and crack; but having successfully acconqilished this, 
the finely-polished surface of the mixture resists in an almost 
perfect degree the liability of barnacles to adhere or weeds to 



296 

grow, while, presumably, the same high polish must mat-eri- 
ally reduce the skin friction which is so important an element 
affecting the speed of iron ships. The dealers in gum-lac 
express the fear lest the demand likely to follow on this novel 
application of it may rapidly exhaust existing sources of 
supply. 

IRON IN THE CONGO. 

Last year Mr. Dupont, director of the Museum of Natural 
History of Brussels, went to the Congo for the purpose of 
studying the geology of the valley from the Atlantic to the 
confluence of the Kassai River, over 400 miles from the coast. 
After eight months devoted to this work, he has returned to 
Europe, bringing some surprising reports with regard to the 
mineral resources of the region. He says that throughout 
the entire extent of the country he found in the plateaus 
skirting the river, under the thick alluvium, a stratum of iron 
ore from a foot and a half to three feet in thickness. In 
numerous places he saw blocks of iron ore sometimes many 
cubic feet in dimensions, upon the slopes of ravines, where 
they had been exposed by denudation. He asserts that there 
is scarcely a country in the world so rich in iron ore as the 
Congo basin, and the mineral is not only abundant, but can 
also be easily reduced. In his opinion, if the other continents 
ever exhaust their resources of iron, the Congo basin can sup- 
ply the rest of the world for a long period. 

GLASS CUTTING BY ELECTRICITY. 

The cutting of glass tubes of wide diameter is another of 
the almost innumerable industrial applications of electricity. 
The tube is surrounded with fine wire, and the extremities of 

fthe latter are put in communication with a source of electricity, 
and it is of course necessary that the wire adhere closely to 
,;i the glass. When a current is passed through the wire, the 

latter becomes red hot and heats the glass beneath it, and a 
single drop of water deposited on the heated place, will cause 
a clean breakage of the glass at that point. Contrary to 
what takes place with the usual processes in the treatment of 
this frangible material, it is found that, the thicker the sides 
of the tubes are, the better the experiment succeeds. 



n 



They have been making 38-ton guns at Portsmouth, 
England, and are talking of introducing the 47-ton variety. 
Nearly 35,000 people live at Portsmouth on wages earned in 
doing some kind of work on England's big guns. 



297 

DEAFNESS CAUSED BY THE ELECTRIC 
LIGHT. 

A curious phenomenon was recently related by M. D'Ar- 
sonval before the French Academy of Medicine. After gazing 
for a few seconds on an arc light of intense brilliancy, he 
suddenly became deaf, and remained so for nearly an hour 
and a half. Surprised, and somewhat alarmed in the first 
instan-ce, but reassured by the disappearance of the symp- 
toms, he repeated the experiment with the same result. 
When only one eye was exposed to the light, no very marked 
effect was produced. 

BROWNING GUN BARRELS. 

Mix 1 6 parts sweet spirits niter, 12 parts saturated solu- 
tion of sulphate of iron, 12 parts chloride of antimony. Bot- 
tle and cork the mixture for a day, then add 500 parts of 
water and thoroughly mix. Clean the barrel to a uniform 
grain free from grease and finger stains. Wipe with a stain- 
ing mixture on a wad of cotton. Let it stand for twenty-four 
hours, scratch brush the surface and repeat twice. Rub off 
the last time with leather moistened with olive oil. Let dry 
a day, and rub down with a cloth moistened with oil to 
polish. 

SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION 

There is a remarkable tendency observable in tissues and 
cotton, when moistened with oil, to become heated when 
oxidation sets in, and sad results often follow when this is neg- 
lected. A wad of cotton used for rubbing a painting has 
been known to take fire when thrown through the air. The 
waste from vulcanized rubber, when thrown in a damp con- 
dition into a pile, takes fire spontaneously. Masses of 
coal stored in a yard have been known to take fire without a 
spark being applied, and one cannot be too careful in 
storing any substance in which oxidation is liable to take 
place. 

A LARGE LUMP OF COAL. 

One of the largest lumps of coal ever mined in the Monon- 
gahela Valley was taken from J. S. Neels' Cincinnati mines, 
near Monongahela City, lately. The block measured 7 feet 
8 inches long, 3 feet 5 inches high, and 3 feet 7 inches wide. 
A temporary track was laid to the river, and the big piece of 
coal loaded in a boat for Cincinnati. 



299 

SCREW-MAKING AT PROVIDENCE, RHOD^i; 
ISLAND. 

It is not known when screws were first made and brought 
into use. The first instance known of machinery being applied 
to the making of screws, was in France, in 1569, by a man 
named Besson, who contrived a screw-cutting gauge to be 
used in a lathe. The early method had been to make the heads 
by pinching the blanks while red hot between dies, and then 
to form the threads by the process of filing. In 174 1 Besson's 
device was improved by Hindley, a watchmaker, of York, 
England; and for a long time the watch-makers of that 
country used this device in making the small screws used in 
their work. The first English patent appears to have been 
issued to Job and William Wyatt, in 1760, for three machines 
— one for making blanks, another for nicking the heads, and 
a third for cutting the threads. Between that date and 1840 
about ten patents were issued, only one of which is worthy of 
notice, namely that of Miles Berry, dated January 28, 1837, 
which was for a gimlet-pointed screw. The first American 
patent was issued December 14, 1798, to David Wilkinson, a 
celebrated mechanic of Rhode Island. The next American 
patent was dated March 23, 1813, and was issued to Jacob 
Perkins, of Newburyport, Mass. In that year, also, a patent 
was granted to Jacob Sloat, of Ramapo, N. Y. At the exten- 
sive nail and iron works of the Piersons, established in Ram- 
apo in 1798, Thomas W. Harvey in 1831 applied the tog- 
gle-joint to the headings of screws, rivets and spikes In 1834 
Mr. Harvey entered into partnership with Frederick Goodell, 
a cotton manufacturer of Ramapo, and established a small 
screw manufactory at Poughkeepsie, and early in the next 
year Mr. Harvey invented machines for heading, nicking and 
shaving screws. These and a thread-cutting machine, pur- 
chased from its inventors, Jacob Sloat and Thomas Spring- 
steen, were successfully operated, producing a gimlet-pointed 
screw. 

It is interesting to note that, while the manufacture of 
wood screws probably originated in Westphalia, Germany, 
and was subsequently carried on in eastern France and Eng- 
land before its introduction into this country, American in- 
ventors have supplied the machinery that is now universally 
employed. The popular feeling that the gimlet -pointed screw 
was a modern invention is erroneous. The company has in 
its possession sample cards of French screws, pointed, though 



299 

not as perfectly made as at present, which were brought from 
France early in the present century, and from an old piano 
now at Northampton, made about the year 1750, screws have 
been taken showing the same feature. Patents have been 
issued on gimlet-pointed screws, but they covered only a 
peculiar form of point. 

The Eagle Mill of the American Screw Company is 
devoted to the manufacture of wood screws. In the yard 
connected with this mill are landed the rods, in coils, from 
which the screws are to be manufactured. The larger por- 
tion of these rods is imported from Sweden, Germany and 
England. The first room into which the reader is to be con- 
tlucted is the *' pickling room." Here the rod is " pickled" 
lor the purpose of removing the flinty scale on the outside ; 
and the action of the mixture in that process-^tends to facil- 
itate the drawing of the wire. After being annealed in fur- 
naces the wire is subjected to the pointing process, the pur- 
pose of which is to reduce the end of the rod to enter the 
draw-plate. The wire is taken into the drawing room, where 
it is drawn in different sizes needed for the great variety of 
screws. The machinery for the different processes is the 
result of the skill of many inventors, who have produced a 
system of machines mostly automatic and beautiful in opera- 
tion. By the automatic wire block used, if anything happens 
to the wire while going through the process, the whole appa- 
ratus stops. If it did not stop, the wire would break. By a 
machine, whose action is accurate and fascinating, the rod 
is cut into the sizes of the screws desired and the 
head put on almost at the same instant. The 
metal, in going through this process, necessarily becomes 
very oily. These " blanks," for such they are called at this 
stage of their manufacture, are put into what are called " rat- 
tlers," revolving boxes, hexagonal in shape, filled with saw- 
dust, where they are cleansed of the oil that covers them, the 
oil being absorbed by the sawdust. The blanks are ready to 
have their heads " shaved," which consists in cutting the 
heads perfectly round. The blanks are put into a hopper, and 
by an automatic feeder they are let down into a trough, from 
which they are picked by a metal finger and put into a spin- 
dle. The heads are then " shaved," and by a revolving spin- 
dle tne blank is taken to the small saw which cuts the slot in 
the head. The blank is then revolved back again and shaved 
again, to get rid of the " burr," or the rough edge left by the 
tool in cutting the slot. The blanks are then fired out of 
the machine al)Solutely perfect. The machine is an automatic 



300 

mc very complicated one ; every part of it, however, does n- 
.gtfrk effectively. The blanks, after being shaved and slotted, 
are placed in another machine and threaded, when the screw 
is complete. 

HOW THERMOMETERS ARE MADE. 

The first point, in the construction of the mercurial ther- 
mometer, is to see that the tube is of uniform caliber through- 
out its whole interior. To ascertain this, a short column of 
mercury is put into the tube and moved up and down, to see 
if its length remains the same through all parts of the tube. 
If a tube whose caliber is not uniform is used, slight differ- 
ences are made in its graduation to allow for this. A scale 
of equal parts is etched upon the tube; and from observations 
of theinequalities of the column of mercury moved in it, a 
table giving the temperatures corresponding to these divisions 
is formed. A bulb is now blown on the tube, and ^^ hile the 
open end of the latter is dipped into mercury, heat is applied 
to the bulb to expand the air in it. This heat is then with- 
drawn, and the air within contracting, a portion of the mercury 
rises in the tube, and partly fills the bulb. To the open end of 
the bulb a funnel containing mercury is fitted, and the bulb 
is placed over a flame until it boils, thus expelling all air and 
moisture from the instrument. On cooling, the tube 
instantly fills with mercury. The bulb is now placed in 
some hot fluid, causing the mercury within it to expand and 
flow over the top of the tube, and, when this overflow has 
ceased, the open end of the tube is heated with a blow-pipe 
flame. To graduate the instrument, the bulb is placed in 
meltmg ice; and, when the top of the mercury column has 
fallen as low as it will, note is taken of its position as com- 
pared with the scale on the tube. This is the freezing point. 
It is marked as zero on the thermometers of Celsius and 
Reaumur, and as 32^ on the Fahrenheit class. 

To determine the boiling point, the instrument is placed 
in a metallic vessel with double walls, between which circulates 
the steam from boilmg water. Between the freezing and 
boiling point of water, 100 equal degrees are marked in the 
centigrade graduation of Celsius, 180^ on the Fahrenheit 
plan, and 80^ on the Reaumur. In many thermometers, all 
three of these gi-aduations are indicated on the frame to which 
the tube is attached. Some weeks after a thermometer has 
been made and regulated, it may be noticed that, when the 
bulb is immersed in pounded ice, the mercury does not quite 
descend to the freezing point. This is owing to a gradual 
expansion of the mercury, which usually goes on for nearlr 



301 

two years, when it is found that the zero point has risen 
nearly a whole degree. It is then necessary to slide down 
the scale to which the tube is fastened, so that it will accurately 
read the movements of the mercury. After this change, the 
accuracy of the thermometer is assured, as there is no further 
. expansion of the mercury column. 

POINTS FOR APPRENTICES. 

In starting to learn a trade as an apprentice, first imagine 
yourself brighter, and more apt to learn, than the older 
apprentices in the shop. Criticise their work on the last range 
they blacked. Show the red spots under the doors or under 
the top plates, and if you are not dropped through the trap 
door into the cellar the first opportunity they get, it will be 
some good fortune that favors you. Wheur- working with a 
jour., tell him how Tom Jones does that, and his ways are 
not right, or tell him how to do it. Of course the jour, has 
worked fifteen years at the business, but that doesn't make 
any difference, you go ahead. If he does not call you cuss 
words and tell you to mind your business, he must have 
a mother-in-law who comes over to see him seven times a day, 
and stays all day Sunday. 

When you have worked about a year at the business, and 
you think you are competent to take charge of the shop, and 
you are given a job of cleaning a furnace, which, of course, 
will smut a boiled shirt, you go home, and kick to the old 
folks; say you are not going to work for Smith any more, as 
he gives you all the dirty work to do, and get the old folks to 
go around and see Smith about their precious boy. It will 
make you, in the eyes of Smith, as large as Jumbo to a rat. 

When you worry your term of apprenticeship through 
and you receive the title of jour., of course you demand jour.'s 
wages, say as much as old man Stewpot. He has worked 
eighteen years in the shop, but that doesn't matter. Why, 
you made six dozen joints of stove pipe in two hours and it 
took himthree ! Well, if you don't make satisfactory arrange- 
ments, I heard Billy Doepan say that Enos Kettle, at Inkville, 
wanted a man, and you, of course, strike; it pays big wages to 
r, first-class man. You go and see Kettle and he asks you 
what you can do. Of course you worked on the cornice for the 
Grand Opera House, and on the button factory, and several 
other jobs too numerous to mention. You receive a position 
to help Kettle out on the Green building cornice. This being 
Thursday night, and he has to go to Plumtown to finish up a 
job, he would like to have you come on in the mornino;. Hm 



S02 

gives you a simple piece of cutting to keep you going until his 
return on Saturday night, when he makes a practice of paying 
off his help. You come under this head, and find that he offers 
you the enormous sum of seventy-five cents per day, and orders 
the stove porter to go and cover the pig trough with your two 
days' work to keep the pigs from making post holes in their 
trough, which his wife wanted him to do for the past nine 
months. You declare he is a crank; you are going West, or 
to some seaport town. 

You strike out and get a position in a roofing shop paint- 
ing tin. You write home to your brother chip telling what 
a position you have, what big wages, etc., but not giving orig- 
inal facts. In a few years you return home broken down, with 
no trade. You can't demand a mechanic's wages, and you 
look back and see your folly. How many are there in this 
boat? -Boys, take my advice: Don't get to knowing too much. 
If you get into that way, it is little use for a mechanic to have 
anything to do with you. 

THREE THERMOMETER SCALES. 

Much annoyance is caused by the great difference in 
thermometer scales in use in the different civilized countries. 
The scale of Reaumur prevails in Germany. As is well known, 
he divides the space between the freezing and boiling points 
into 80°. France uses that of Celsius, who graduated his 
scale on the decimal system. The most peculiar scale of all, 
however, is that of Fahrenheit, a renowned German physi- 
cist, who in 1714 or 1715 composed his scale, having ascer- 
tained that water can be cooled under the freezing point 
without congealing. He therefore did not take the congeal- 
ing point of water, which is uncertain, but composed a mix- 
ture of equal parts of snow and salammonia, about — 14° R. 
This scale is preferable to both those of Reaumur and Celsius, 
or, as it is called. Centigrade, because : i. The regular tem- 
peratures of the moderate zone move within its two zeros, 
and can therefore be written without + or — . 2. The scale 
is divided so finely that it is not necessary to use fractions, 
when careful observations are to be made. These advan- 
tages, although drawn into question by some, have been con- 
sidered so weighty, that both Great Britain and America have 
retained the scales, w4iile the nations of the Continent use the 
other two. The conversion of any one of these scales into 
another is very simple, i. To change a temperature given 
by Fahrenheit's scale into the same given by the Centigrade 
scale, subtract 32^ from Fahrenheit's degrees and multiply 



303 

the remainder by f . The product will be the temperature 
in Centigrade degrees. To change from Fahrenheit's to 
Reaumur's scale, subtract 32° from Fahrenheit's degrees, and 
multiply the remainder by |. The product will be the tem- 
perature in Reaumur's degrees. 3. To change a temperature 
given by the Centigrade scale into the same given by Fahren- 
heit, multiply the Centigrade degrees by §, and add 32° to 
the product. The sum will be the temperature by Fahren- 
heit's scale. 4. To change from Reaumur's to Fahrenheit's 
scale, multiply the degrees on Reaumur's scale by -I, and add 
32^ to the product. The sum will be the temperature by 
Fahrenheit's scale. Following is a table giving the equiva- 
lents in Centigrade, Reaumur and Fahrenheit, up to boiling 
point, which will be a convenience to all readers who do not 
like the labor of converting one scale to another : 

C. R. F. C. - R. F. 



—30 


— 24.0 


— 22.0 


1 


-0.8 


30.2 


—29 


—23.2 


— 20.2 





0.0 


32.0 


—28 


— 22.4 


— 18.4 


I 


0.8 


33-8 


—27 


— 21.6 


—16.6 


2 


1.6 


35.6 


—26 


—20.8 


—14.8 


3 


2.4 


37.4 


—25 


— 20.0 


—130 


4 


3-2 


39-2 


—24 


— 19.2 


— II. 2 


5 


4.0 


41.0 


—23 


—18.4 


—9.4 


6 


4.8 


42.8 


— 22 


-17.6 


-7.6 


7 


5.6 


44.6 


—21 


—16.8 


--5.8 


8 


6.4 


46.4 


—20 


— 16.0 


—4.0 


9 


7.2 


48.2 


— 19 


—15.2 


— 2.2 


10 


8.0 


So.o 


—18 


—14.4 


-0.4 


II 


8.8 


51.8 


—17 


-13.6 


1.4 


12 


9.6 


53.6 


-^16 


—12.8 


3-2 


13 


10.4 


55.4 


—15 


—12.0 


50 


14 


II. 2 


57-2 


—14 


— II. 2 


(i.% 


15 


12.0 


59-0 


— 13 


— 10.4 


%.(i 


16 


12.8 


60.8 


— 12 


-9.6 


10.4 


17 


13-6 


62.6 


— II 


-8.8 


12.2 


18 


14.4 


64.4 


— 10 


-8.0 


14.0 


19 


15.2 


66.2 


—9 


-7.2 


15.8 


20 


16.0 


68.0 


—8 


-6.4 


17.6 


21 


16.8 


69.8 


—7 


-5.6 


19.4 


22 


17.6 


71.6 


-6 


-4.8 


21.2 


23 


18.4 


73-4 


—5 


— 4.0 


23.0 


24 


19.2 


75.2 


—4 


—3-2 


24.8 


25 


20.0 


77.0 


—3 


—2.4 


26.6 


26 


20.8 


^^."^ 


—2 


—1.6 


28.4 


27 


21.6 


80.6 



304 



R. 



F. 



R. 



28 


22.4 


82.4 


65 


52.0 


149.0 


29 


23.2 


81.2 


66 


52.8 


150.8 


30 


24.0 


86.0 


67 


53.6 


152.6 


31 


24.8 


87.8 


68 


54-4 


154.4 


32 


25.6 


89.6 


69 


55-2 


156.2 


33 


26.4 


91.4 


70 


56.0 


158.0 


34 


27.2 


93-2 


71 


56.8 


159.8 


35 


28.0 


95.0 


72 


57.6 


161.6 


36 


28.8 


96.8 


73 


58.4 


163.4 


37 


29.6 


98.6 


74 


59-2 


165.2 


38 


30.4 


100.4 


75 


60.0 


167.0 


39 


31.2 


102.2 


76 


60.8 


168.8 


40 


32.0 


104.0 


77 


61.6 


170.6 


41 


32-8 


105.8 


78 


62.4 


172.4 


42 


33-6 


107.6 


79 


63.2 


174.2 


43 


34-4 


109.4 


80 


64.0 


176.0 


44 


35-2 


III. 2 


81 


64.8 


177-8 


45 


36.0 


113.0 


82 


65.6 


179.6 


46 


36.8 


1 14. 8 


83 


66.4 


181. 4 


47 


37.6 


116.6 


84 


67.2 


183.2 


48 


38.4 


118.4 


85 


68.0 


185.0 


49 


39-2 


120.2 


86 


68.8 


186.8 


50 


40.0 


122.0 


87 


69.6 


188.6 


51 


40.8 


123.8 


88 


70.4 


190.4 


52 


41.6 


125.6 


89 


71.2 


192.2 


53 


42.4 


127.4 


90 


72.0 


194.0 


54 


43-2 


129.2 


91 


72.8 


195.8 


55 


44.0 


131. 


92 


73-6 


197.6 


56 


44.8 


132.8 


93 


74-4 


199.4 


57 


45.6 


134.6 


94 


75.2 


201.2 


58 


46.4 


136.4 


95 


76.0 


203.0 


59 


47.2 


138.2 


90 


76.8 


204.8 


60 


48.0 


140.0 


97 


77.6 


206.6 


61 


48.8 


141. 8 


98 


78.4 


208.4 


62 


49.6 


1436 


98 


79.2 


210.2 


63 


50-4 


145-4 


100 


80.0 


212.0 


64 


51.2 


147.2 









WHY STEEL IS HARD TO WELD. 

A metallurgist gives, as a reason why steel will not weld as 
readily as wrought iron, that it is not partially composed of 
cinder, as seems to be the case with WTought iron, which 
assists in forming a fusible aUoy with the scale of oxidation on 
the surface of the iron in the furnace. 



30S 

DIFFERENT COLORS OF IRON, CAUSED BY 

HEAT. 



Deg. 
Cen. 


Deg. 

Fah. 


261 
370 


502 
680 


500 


932 


525 
700 
800 
900 
1000 


977 
1292 
1472 
1657 
1832 


1 100 


20i2 


1200 
13CX) 
1400 
1500 
1600 


2192 
2372 
2552 
2732 
2912 



r Violet, purple and dull blue, 
/ Between 261^ C. to 370^ C. it 
) passes to bright blue sea 
[^ green, and then disappears, 
f Commences to be covered 
I with a light coating of ox- 
' ide ; becomes a deal more 
impressible to the hammer, 
[ and can be twisted with easer 

Becomes a nascent red. 

Somber red. 

Nascent cherry. 

Cherry. 

Bright cherry. 

Dull orange. 

Bright orange. 

White. 

Brilliant white- welding heat. 



•< Dazzling white. 



TO DRAW FERRULES. 

A useful tool for drawing thimbles or ferrules out of loco- 
motive boiler tubes 
is here shown. It is 
an English inven- 
tion, and it is not 
stated that it is pat- 
ented. The tube A 
is split in quarters on 
the end so that it 
can be easily slipped 
in. The rest of the 
device explains itself, 

as does the second figure also, which is another device for the 

same purpose. 




3o6 

BELTING SHAFTING AT RIGHT ANGLES. 

In Fig. I of the illustration, A is the driver. The belt 
leaves the pulley at C, goes to the driven pulley, and then 
down to the driver at h. In Fig. 2 this movement is re- 



8 



¥ 



\=~ 



Fig. 



Fig. 2. 



versed. Fig. 3 is a side view of the driven pulley B^ and Fig. 
4 shows the driving pulley A, with the driven pulley B in- 
side, so as to run in the one direction, while the dotted linesf 



srr^— =1 


in 


1 1 


^^^ 


^ 


y/\ 


\ 


w 




A 


^^m. 


^^i 


M-ii-S* 


w 



show B outside, so as to run the opposite way. Figs, i and 2 
show that centers of the faces of both pulleys must be in lin-e 



307 

with each other, and if this point is attended to the pulleys 
will run well together, although they may be of different 
diameters. 

AN EASY WAY TO LEVEL SHAFTING. 

The device here illustrated for leveling shafting I have 
found to be very handy. The hangers A are made of wood 
and are cut at an angle of 45° at the top end, so that they will 
fit different sized shafts, and a slot is cut at [a) to receive the 
straight edge C, The hangers are placed on the shaft to be 







tried, at any convenient place as near the bearmgs as possi- 
ble, and the straight edge placed in the slots, in which it 
should fit tight. Then by placing the spirit level D on the 
parallel part of the straight edge, it will be seen whether the 
shaft is level or not. It is best if the hangers be made of 
hard wood. 

A SELF-WINDING CLOCK MOVEMENT. 

A self-winding clock is now on the market and we present 
herewith an engraving of one. It is made by the American 
Manufacturing and Supply Co., Limited, 10 and 12 Dey 
street. New York. Objection may be made to the employ- 
ment of a battery as an auxiliary, and therefore that the clock 



3o8 

is not self-winding, but the office of the battery is secondary, 
the operation of the clock opening the circuit while the bat- 
tery is used only to interrupt it. Appended is a description 
II the movement: 




^nQ wheels and arbors below the center are removed from 
me clock. In their place a small electric motor is substituted 
This motor connects with a spring barrel on the center arbor, 
which incloses a spring six feet long, three-sixteenths of an 
inch in width and six-one-thousandths of an inch in 
thickness. xhis spring, at its inner end, is attached 



309 

\o the arbor, and at the outer end to the periphery of the 
^ring barrel. The spring is coiled around the arbor many 
times, but not so close as to produce friction between the 
coils; and being attached to the center arbor it follows that 
fhe inner end will unwind one turn every hour. By a sim- 
ple attachment the electric circuit is made to pass into the 
motor already referred to, which quickly carries the spring 
barrel around once (being free on the arbor), and the outer 
end of the spring attached to its periphery with it. Upon 
the completion, of one revolution of the spring barrel, as de- 
scribed, the electric circuit is broken and the motor stops. 
By this arrangement it will be observed that the inner end of 
the spring always has a motion from left to right, or in the 
direction the hands are moving, and the outer end of the 
spring a motion in the same direction when the clock is 
being wound. — 

Now, since the winding is done in the same directioii as 
the unwinding of the inner end, and the spring is so wound 
originally as to avoid friction between the coils, it follows 
that the tension upon the train is absolutely uniform at all 
times whether the outer end of the spring is at a point of tem- 
porary rest or is being carried around the arbor at the time 
of winding, as above described. By actual experiment it is 
found that to obtain a given force at the escape wheel it is 
only necessary to apply a power in this manner at the center 
arbor equal to less than one- forty-sixth part of that used in 
the ordinary clock. The train work is not only shortened 
one-half, but the friction on the remainder is reduced in the 
proportion stated. 

The invention lies in bringing a motor and clock-worK 
hgether in a time piece, and is not limited to any particular 
iievice. Experiments prove that a motor as constructed for 
ihi^^purpose can be run for one year at an expense of less 
than twenty-five cents; hence a clock may be sealed up and 
left to itself for a period of at least one year with a certainty 
of closer time during that period than can be secured by any 
other known method of giving time. In short, a common 
clock constructed on this principle has been found to keep as 
accurate time as one of the higher grades with gravity 
escapements, etc., run by the old methods. The electric 
motor is normally out of circuit, but at stated intervals, by 
the operation of the clock itself, the circuit is completed and 
the motor is thus set in motion. To be more exact we will 
give a general description of the mechanism employed in the 
clock. Upon the center arbor there is placed a loose " arm ** 
between the hour wheel and the wheel carrying the spring 



3IO 

"box. At one side of one of the " train plates " is secured 
an insulated spring connector, the free end of which extends 
to, and is within reach of, the " arm," when the same has been 
brought to a perpendicular position, which is done by means 
of a pin projecting from the hour wheel. 

When the hour wheel has thus brought the " arm " to an 
upright position and in contact with the insulated spring 
connector, the circuit is completed through the motor, which 
at once commences to rotate the spring box one revolution 
from left to right, or in the direction that the hands move. 
The spring box wheel also carries a projecting pin, but set at 
a less distance from the axis than the other pin. Now, as 
the motor continues to rotate the spring box wheel, while 
the spring connector is resting upon the "arm," it follows 
that as soon as there has been one revolution of the spring 
box wheel the projecting pin upon this wheel will press the 
*' arm " forward and out from under the spring connector, 
thereby breaking the circuit and stopping the motor. This 
arrangement prevents the possibility of the clock| running 
beyond the regular limit for winding, and prevents the motor 
-svhen once set in operation from performing more than the 
work required. 

TESTS OF STEEL PIPE. 

The Riverside Iron Works, of Wheeling, W. Va., has 
carried out a series of interesting experiments to ascertain 
the relative corrosive action of water acidulated with nitric 
acid upon iron and steel plates cut from pipe. The water 
was acidulated with one part of strong nitric acid in ninety 
parts, the plates being of the same dimensions, free from 
scale and grease and polished bright. In each case the 
pieces cut from iron and steel pipe were hung side by side in 
the same acidulated water, the loss of weight being deter- 
mined at the end of twenty-four and of forty-eight hours. 
One test was made by exposing both surfaces and edges to 
the action of dilute acid, the result being that the loss in 
gi-ains after twenty-four hours was 3. 6 in the case of iron 
from standard iron pipe, and 1. 15, or less than half, with steel 
pipe. In forty-eight hours the figures stood 6.53 and 2.21 
grains, respectively. In a second test the edges of the pieces 
were protected from the action of the acid and the two oppo- 
site sides only exposed. In this test the loss of iron after 
twenty-four hours was 1.89 grains, against 0.49 grains with 
the steel, and after forty-eight hours 4,28 and 1.24, respect- 
ively. The dimensions of the test-pieces were iX inches 



311 

square 'by 3-16-inch thick. A series of comparative tests 
have also been made to ascertain the relative strength of the 
weld of Riverside steel and standard iron pipe. Two test- 
pieces were cut from Riverside pipe, mechanical lap- weld, 
with the weld at the middle, and in a similar way from 
mechanical lap- welded iron pipe, in each case with the weld 
in the middle. Not one of the tests broke at the weld, the 
steel showing a tensile strength of 52,400 and 66,330 pounds, 
withan elongation of 18.75 and 17.25 per cent, in 8 mches, 
while the iron pipe samples showed 62,480 and 35,240 pounds 
per square inch, and an elongation of 2. 25 and o. 50 per cent. 
Two samples from a sheet of Riverside steel lap-welded by 
hand, with the weld in the middle, showed a tensile strength 
of 51,860 pounds, and an elongation of 7 per cent, in 8 
inches, the fracture occurring at the weld. A second sample 
had an ultimate strength of 56,090 pounds^elongation 13 per 
cent., and did not break at the weld. Iron plates cut with 
the grain and hand- welded have a tensile strength of 44,630 
and 43,500 pounds, respectively, with an elongation of 5 and 
4.25 per cent., both breaking at the weld. 

TOOL FOR COUNTER-BORING. 

The above is a sketch of a tool that will be found very con- 
venient on many occasions, when 
counter-boring work in the [drill 
press; usually such work is done with 
a cutter of the same shape as it is 
desired to have the finished work, 
when if there is any scale, as in cast 
iron, it is very difficult to get the cut- 
ter started. The tool in the sketch 
entirely obviates that difficulty, as 
only the points come in contact with 
the scale at first and are easily forced 
through it. . Referring to the sketch, 
A is the end of a cutter-bar, B^ the 
cutter, and C, the wedge for keeping 
the cutter in place. It will be 
noticed that the teeth Z>, on one side 
of the bar will, as it is' revolved, 
cover the space left by the part of 
the cutter on the other side of the 
bar, and thus rapidly remove the 
scale and metal, when the work 
may be finished by the ordinary flat 
cutter. 




312 

HOW TO MAKE A SMALL STORAGE BATTERY. 

A storage battery, or accumulator, to light an incandes- 
cent lamp of 4 candle-power, would not jgo in an ordinary 
sized pocket, because one would require at least four cells, 
and if the plates were made too small, the charge put into 
them would last scarcely a few seconds. The following di- 
rections will enable any person to construct a storage bat- 
tery, which, when charged, will light a 4-volt lamp. 

The first thing to do is to procure of some dealer in elec- 
trical apparatus and material a hard rubber cell, about 3^ 
inches by 5 inches by i inch, having two compartments of 
equal dimensions. Such a cell can be purchased for abfiut 
fifty cents. 

Next, cut four plates from one-sixteenth inch sheet lead, 
4^ inches by i X inch, having an ear to each ; punch as 
many holes in each plate as you can to within ^ inch from 
the ear or top end. Then fill up the holes, and also smear 
the plates with a thick paste of red lead (minimum) and di- 
luted sulphuric acid. Cut out a piece from thin — ^/^ of an 
inch — hard wood, 3^ inches long and i inch wide ; pierce 
it with four slits large enough to allow the ears of the plates 
to come through (two to each cell), and, also, where con- 
venient, two holes should be made and fitted with glass tubes 
for the purpose of filling the cells. 

As soon as the red lead paste has become hard, plac thee 
four plates in their positions, and solder the ear of one plate 
to the ear piece of the next cell. This will leave one free end 
from each cell ; to these a wire or terminal should be sol- 
dered. Now cement on the top and cover all over, except 
the glass tubes, with a composition of one part melted pitch 
and two parts of gutta-percha. 

Having filled the cells three-quarters full with a 10 per 
cent, solution of sulphuric acid, connect the wires on a 
primary battery or small dynamo. Charge, discharge and 
reverse every three hours, and let the last charge remain in 
all night. Do this till you find your storage battery will 
ring a bell, with fifteen minutes' charging, for about ten. 
Then only charge one way, and mark the ends in some way 
so as to know where to connect one next time lor charging. 

This battery, when completed, will lignt a 3 or 4 volt 
lamp well during intervals for about two hours. A similar 
cell, having four compartments instead of tw^o, would suffice 
to operate an 8 or 9 volt lamp, or one of about 6 candle- 
Dower. 

Such a battery as has just been described may be 



313 

veniently be formed by a ten-cell Daniel telegraph battery in 
about a fortnight's time. 

A storage battery of this size should never be charged 
until within an hour or so of its being wanted for use, as it 
will run down a little by short circuiting, owing to the damp- 
ness of the inside. 

Finally, it should be stated, that, before putting the plates 
in the cells for good, a piece of india rubber ought to be 
placed between the plates, as well as a piece on the two out- 
sides, and held by a piece of asbestos fiber. This prevents the 
plates from touching each other, and also keeps them from 
shaking from side to side. 

LUBRICATING WITHOUT OIL. 

•Several interesting facts in regard to cylinder lubrication 
were brought out at the recent meeting of the American 
Society of Mechanical Engineers, at Philadelphia. Among 
other things Mr. Denton stated as his opinion that the fric- 
tion of an engine was independent of the lead, and, among 
other things, presented the subjoined interesting table: 




This table, it will be observed, shows that the friction is 
actually less in all cases but one when the load is greatest. 
Mr. Denton thought that the friction of a piston in a cyl- 
inder was slight, and that lubrication did not bring about any 
noticeable result so far as this particular part was concerned. 
In support of these statements he cited first the case of an 
engine in which the steam of the same pressure was admitted 
to both cylinder ends at the same time The difference in 
area between the two faces of the piston^ owi"g to the pres- 
ence of the piston-rod, and the consequ'^jitly greater effective 



3H 

pressure on the back, as compared with the front face, caused 
the piston to move slowly to the front end of the cylinder. 
The friction, therefore, could not have been appreciable. As 
regards lubrication Mr. Denton gave an account of his 
experience with engines which had been cleaned out with 
ether, and in which no oil whatever had been used for months. 
The records obtained under such conditions, when compared 
with data from the same engines using oil in the cylinders, 
showed no difference worthy of special note. The fact that 
engines showed less friction under the heavier loads than 
under the lighter ones Mr. Denton explained by the assump- 
tion that the various journals, through the reversal of motion 
of the reciprocating parts of the engines, developed a suc- 
tion-pump action, drawing in the lubricating oil, and that 
this action was more vigorous when the engines were fully 
loaded. 

CALKING. 

Calking is something that is not always done as it should 
be. In fact, in some sections of the country it is done as it 
shouldn't be, about as emphatically as it is possible to do any- 
thing. The thing most particularly referred to in this con- 
nection, and the practice of which should bankrupt any 
boilermaker, is known as "split calking." To do calk- 
ing in the best manner, and as it should be done, the edges 
of the plates should be planed. They are planed in all first- 
class shops, and trouble caused by bad calking is something 
very rai e with such work. But of course this refers to new 
w^ork. Repair jobs, and boiler work turned out of the shops 
in remote sections of the country where planers are unkno\Mi, 
afford the demon of split calking a chance to get in his most 
effective work. He rarely neglects a chance that is offered 
him. Some one may inquire, what is split calking? To 
which we would reply, split calking consists in driving a thin 
caulking tool, scarcely one-sixteenth of an inch thick, against 
the edge of a sheet so that a thin section of the plate is 
driven in between the two plates, with the idea of making a 
joint tight. The result generally is that the plates are sepa- 
rated from the edge of the lap back to the line of rivets, some- 
times as much as one-thirty-second of an inch, the only bear- 
ing surface outside of the rivets being the portior> ^plit off 
from the plate and driven in by the calking tool. This 
bearing surface may be an eighth of an inch wide, b jt it !s 
apt to be much less, and no patent medicine yet discovered 
will keep the seam tight for any length of time. When a 
boiW thus calked gets to leaking so badly that it can't be 



315 

run, the boiler-maker is sent for, and he usually proceeds to 
do more split calking, and in a short time the boiler leak& 
worse than ever. In one instance one of our inspectors 
examined a boiler and found one of the girth seams leaking 
badly. It had repeatedly been calked in the above manner; 
so many times, in fact, had the process been repeated, that 
there was not enough of the lap to perform another opera- 
tion on. . He, therefore, gave instructions for putting on a 
patch, with a special caution to the owner, to whom he ex- 
plained the cause of the trouble, to allow no split calking to- 
be done on it. On his next visit he examined the patch, and 
he declares that the boiler-maker had put in on it the worst 
job of split calking he ever saw in his life. 

USEFUL NUMBERS. 
3.l4i5926=ratio of diameter to circumference of circle. 
.7854=ratio of area of circle to square of its diameter. 
33,000 minute foot pounds=i HP. 
396,000 minute inch pounds=i HP. 

396,000 cubic inches piston displacement per minute of 
engine wheel would develop i HP. with i lb. mean effective 
pressure on the piston. 

23,760,000 cubic inches piston displacement per hour of 
engine developing i HP. with i lb. mean effective pressure on 
the piston. 

859,375 pounds of water per hour at i Vb. pressure per 
square inch to give i HP. 

55 lbs. mean effective pressure at 600 feet piston speed 
gives I HP. for each square inch of piston area. 
0.30i030=natural logarithm 2. 
0.477121 " " 3. 

0.602060 " " 4, 

0.698970 " " 5 

0.7781 5 1 " " 6, 

0.845098 
o. 903090 " " 

0-954243 " " 9' 

1. 000000 " " 10. 

2.3025851 times natural logarithm gives hyperbolic log- 
rithm. 

.5oooooo=sine of 30° with radius i. 

.7071068 " 450 " I. 

.8660254 " 600 " I. 

9,000 to 13,000 feet per minute velocity of circular saw 
Jfen. 

27,000 !t)s. per square inch tensile strength of cast iron. 



^5^,000 fbs. per square inch tensile strength of A\TOUght 
iron. 

120,000 Tbs. tensile strength of steel. 
30,000 lt>s. tensile-strength of sheet copper. 
60,000 rbs. tensile strength of copper wire. 

100,000 lbs. per square inch=cru5hing strength of cast 
iron. 

35,000 R)s. per square inch=crushing strength of wrought 
iron. 

225,000 lt)s. crushing strength of steel. 

300 to 1,200 tons per square foot crushing strength of 
granite. 

6.500 tbs. per square inch ci ashing strength oi oak. 

(Above crushing strengths are for pieces not over 3 dia- 
meters in length. ) 

600 to 1,000 feet per minute of single leather belt i inch 
wide said to give i HP. on cast iron pulleys. 

2.645 lbs. per lineal foot of i inch round wrought iron. 

3.368 lbs. per lineal foot of i inch square \\TOUght iron. 

40 lbs. per square foot of i inch plate \^Tought iron. 

2.45 lbs. per lineal foot of i inch round cast iron. 

12 times weight of pine pattern = iron casting. 

13 times weight of pine pattern =bra5s casting. 
19 times weight of pine pattern =lead casting. 
12.2 times weight of pine pattern = tin casting. 

1 1.4 times weight of pine pattern =zinc casting. 
.06363 times square of inches diameter, times thickness in 
inches = weight of grindstone in pounds. 

.8S62 times diam. of circle = side of a square equaling. 
.7071 times diam. of circle ==Side of inscribed square. 
1.12S3 times square root of area of circle =diam. of circle. 
57^ 2958 in. arc having length >= radius 
.oi745^X radius=length of arc i deg. 
9.8696044=3. I4i5926- = n 2, 
1.7724538= v^ (3. 1415926)= vn. 
o.497i5=nat. log. 3.1415926. 

r 
.3i83i=reciprocal of 3. 1415926=— 

n 

.002778=1-^360=1-360. 

114.59=360-^3.1415926. 

3 1 83 X circumf. =diam. of circle. 

2786^ F. =melting point of iron. 

2016^ F.=melting point of gold. 

1873^ F.=melting point of silver. 

2160^ F.=melting pomt of copper. 



31^ V 

740° F.= melting point of zinc. 

620^ F.=melting point of lead. ] 

475° F.=melting point of tin. 

537 lbs. per cu. ft.=vveight of copper. 

450 lbs. per cu. ft. =weight of cast iron. 

485 lbs. per cu. ft. =weight of wrought iron. 

708 lbs. per cu. ft.=weight of cast lead. 

490 lbs. per cu. ft.=weight of steel. 

27.684 cubic inches of water per pound at 32^ F. 

27.759 cu. in. water per lb. at 70*^ 

.036 lbs. per cu. in. water at 60 "^ F. 

62.355 lbs per cu. ft. water at 62 ^ F. 

59.64 lbs per cu. ft. water at 212 ^ F. 

.54 lbs. anthracite per cu. ft. ; 

40 to 43 cu. ft. anthracite per ton. 

49 cu. ft. bituminous coal per ton. • 

39.3685 inches = I meter. _ ' , 

3.2807 feet = I meter. 

1.0936 yards = i meter. 

61.02 cubic inches = i meter. 

2. 113 pints = I liter. 

1.057 quarts ~ i liter. 

BUYING OIL AND COAL. 

There are many establishments which, when buying oil, 
coal, and such supplies, consider merely the question of first 
cost irrespective of their economic value. The best is not 
necessarily the cheapest, nor is it necessarily the dearest. 
The true economic value is due to the service it will per- 
form, divided by the price. 

We will take the case of coal. Some coal will evaporate 
ten pounds of water per pound of coal under certain condi- 
tions, and others only seven. In the one case there will be 
2240X10=22,400 pounds of water evaporated, and in the 
other only 2240X7=15,680 pounds, under the same condi- 
tions. If the first lot sold at $5.25 per ton, and the second 
at only $5 the first would be the cheapest, for in the one case 
(including freight and labor in stoking and cost of remov- 
ing ashes) we would get 22,40O-^5.25=4,266.66 pounds of 
steam per dollar's worth of coal, and in the other only 
115,680-^5=3,136 pounds of steam per dollar's worth of coal. 
Not allowing for freight and the cost of removing ashes, and 
not considering the capacity of the boiler with good coal as 
compared with its capacity with poor, the first coal would be 
a scheap at $6.80 per ton as the second at $5 ; or, to put 



3iS 

it the other way, the poorer coal ought to be sold at $3.85 
per ton to make it as cheap as the better material at $5.25. 
When the other expenses are taken into consideration, the 
economy of buying the better coal becomes greater. 

In the matter of oils : these vary in their lubricating 
powers, in their coolness of running, and in their durability. 
We will consider two oils, one at 25 cents per gallon and the 
other at 30, having the same lubricating power and running 
equally cool under free feed, but one requiring 100 gallons to 
keep the friction do\^Ti to a minimum and the other taking 
only 75 gallons to effect the same object. The relative 
economy of these two oils is not as 30 to 25, or as 120 to looi, 
but as 30X75=2,250 to 25X100=2,500, or as 100 to 90; 
that is, the cost of the high-priced oil to effect a given desired 
condition is only .go the cost of the poor oil to do the same 
thing ; then the economy is as 100 to 90. At this rate the 
better grade of oil would be as cheap at 
10X30 

o^""33/^ cents per gallon, 

as the cheaper at 25 cents ; or the lower grade would have 
to be sold at 

~22j^ cents per gallon, 

to bring its economy do\^Ti to that of the better grade ; and 
this without counting freight, which, in many cases, should 
be added to the invoice price, or time in oiling, which is time 
lost. 

NOTES OX PATTERN-MAKING. 

Never work with a dull tool. 

Take time to sharpen and put your tools in good order; it 
saves time in the end. 

Above all, never use a dull or badly " set " saw. It will 
ruin your work, sour your temper, and make you disgusted 
with the whole world. 

If you are varnishing or polishing a piece of work, have 
the room or shop warm, exclude draught and dust, and don't 
be in too big a hurry. 

If you are polishing in the lathe, see to it that all dust 
and dirt are removed from the lathe-bed before you com- 
mence work. 

It is better, w^hen possible, to polish all turned work in 
the lathe. It always has a better appearance for it. 

In making patterns for castings, if you have no experience 



319 

you had better consult ome person who has had experience. 
Patterns are difficult things for amateurs to make if they 
do not understand the principles of molding and founding. 

White pine or mahogany makes the best work for pat- 
terns. Lead, brass, copper and sometimes plaster of Paris 
are used for making patterns ; especially is this so for small, 
fine castings. 

Shellac varnish is the best material for coating pat- 
terns. ^ 

Beeswax may be used for stopping up holes or to cover 
defects in patterns if it is coated with shellac varnish after- 
ward. The beeswax will " take " the varnish readily, and 
will not cling to the **sand," like ordinary putty. 

Shellac varnish may be mixed with a little lampblack to 
^ive it body and make a black pattern. 

Sometimes pattern-makers use stove polish or "black 
lead," as it is called, to finish their patterns^ It is applied 
nearly dry, then polished with a brush. ^ 

Wood used for patterns must be of the very best finish, 
:straight grained, free from knots or shakes, and well sea- 
.soned. 

A clean pattern gives a clean casting, and much labor 
may be saved by making the pattern the right size, and 
.smooth and clean. 

After patterns have been used they should be kept in a 
dry plfxe, as damp will distort and otherwise injure them. 

Always make a drawing of patterns before making. Much 
time and labor will be saved. 

Where patterns part in the center they should be made 
to separate easily. 

Put on your best workmanship when pattern making. 

AN INTERESTING EXPERIMENT. 

You think you stand pretty straight, don't you ? Well, 
just back up against the wall of a room and bear against it 
all over ; you will find there more buckles, short bends and 
offsets between your head and your heels than you had any 
idea of. 

While you have your heels against the baseboard, keep 
them there, and reach over forward and touch your fingers to 
the floor, if you want a specimen of upset gravity. 



A steel wire nail mill has just begun work at Hamilton, 
Ont. The output at present is a ton a day. 



320 

THINGS TO REMEMBER ABOUT SHAFTING. 

Don't buy light hangers, and think that they vnH do well 
enough, when your own judgment tells you that they will 
spring. 

Remember that shafting is turned one-sixteenth inch 
smaller than the nominal size. 

Cold-rolled and hot-rolled shafting can be obtained the 
full size. 

The sizes of shafting var\' by quarter inches up to uiree- 
and-a-half inches. 

The ordinan- run of shafting is not manufactured longer 
than from iS to 20 feet. 

For line shafts, never use any that is smaller than one- 
and-eleven-sixteenth inches in diameter, as the smallest 
diameters are not strong enough to withstand the strain of 
the belts without springing. 

The economical speed of shafting for machine shops has 
been found to be from 125 to 150 revolutions per minute, 
and for woodworking shops from 200 to 300 revolutions. 

A jack-shaft is a shaft that is used to receive the entire 
power direct from the engine or other motor, which it delivers 
to the various main shafts. 

Keep the shafting well lined up at all times, as this will 
ward off a breakdown, and avoid a waste of power. 

Know that the pulleys are well balanced before they are 
put in position, as a pulley much out of balance is quite a 
sure method to throw shafting out of line. 

Look to the pulleys, and see that they have been bored to 
the size of the shaft, for unless this is done the pulley may be 
out of center on the shaft and prevent smooth running. 

If possible, apply the power to a line of shafting at or near 
the center of its length, as this will enable you to use the 
lightest possible weight of shafting. 

Hangers with adjustable boxes will be foiUKi to be the 
most convenient for keeping the shafting in line. 

Keep your drip-cups cleaned, and do not allow them to 
oversow or get loose. 

Have a supply of tallow in the boxes ; in case of acciden- 
tal heating it ^^-ill melt and prevent cutting ; this rule, while 
good for general use, applies particularly to special cases where 
• there is a supposed liability to heating. 

Never lay tools or other things on belts that are standing 
still, for they may be forgotten and cause a breakdown when 
the machinery is started 

Don't attempt to run a shaft in a box that is too large dt 



321 

too small, as you will waste time and fail to secure good re- 
sults. 

A loose collar held by a set screw will cause the collar 
to stand askew, and it will cut and wear the box against 
which it runs. 

In erecting a line of shafting, the largest sections should 
be placed at the point where the power is applied. The 
diameter can then be gradually decreased toward the extrem- 
ities remote from this point. 

Don't put loose bolts in plate couplings, as this will give 
no end of trouble in cutting, shearing and the wearing away 
of the bolt holes. 

Don't think that because your shafting has been well 
erected and you oil it regularly, that it will never need any 
inspection or repairs. 

Don't try to economize in first cost by having long dis- 
tances between hangers, for a well supported shaft will 
always do the best work ; short shafts are the surest to be 
straight and to remain sOc 

The length usually adopted, for shafting bearings is twice 
to four times the diameter of the shaft, varying with the 
diameters of shaft, kind of bearings and the material used in 
them. Large shafts in the gun-metal or bronze boxes may 
have bearings only twice their diameter in length. Cast iron 
bearings up to and including three inch shafts are often made 
four diameters of the shaft in length, particularly for self- 
adjusting hangers. 

If Babbit is used for the boxes, use only a good metal; 
do not adopt the common mixture of tin, antimony and 
lead. 

Insist upon having good iron in your shafting, as the 
bearings will take a finer jDolish, and you will not be subject 
to sudden ruptures. 

If the strain on a pulley is so great that the set-screws 
already in will not hold it, do not let them score into the 
shaft, but put in an extra screw, or cut a key-way and put in 
a key. 

The width of a key-way should be one-quarter of an inch 
for each inch of diameter of the shaft. 

The depth of a key-way is one-half its width. 



322 

WORKSHOP JOTTINGS. 

To Prepare Zinc for Painting — Apply sulphuric acid 
and water for a quarter of an hour ; then wash off clean with 
water and dry. 

Moisture-Resisting Glue — A glue which is proof against 
moisture may be made by dissolving i6 ounces of glue in 3 
pints of skim milk. If a stronger glue be wanted, add 
powdered lime. 

A Good Lubricator — It may not be generally known that 
tallow and plumbago thoroughly mixed make the best lubri- 
cator for surfaces when one is wood or when both are wood. 
Oil is not so good as tallow to mix with plumbago for the 
lubrication of wooden surfaces, because oil penetrates and 
saturates the wood to a greater degree than tallow, causing it 
to swell more. 

To Prevent Metals Rusting^^T\\Q following is said to 
be a good application to prevent metals rusting : Melt i oz. 
of resin in a gill of linseed oil, and while hot mix with it two 
quarts of kerosene oil. This can be kept ready to apply at 
any time with a brush or rag to any tools or implements 
required to lay by for a time, preventing any rust, and saving 
much vexation when the tool is to be used again. 

71? Preve7tt Slipping of Belts — Belts conveying power 
are very apt to slip on pulleys, but a new pulley has been 
devised to prevent this. The pulley is covered with per- 
forated sheet iron one-sixteenth of an inch thick, which is 
riveted to the pulley. The tension of the belt causes it to 
grip slightly the holes, and thus slipping is avoided, while at 
the same time the pulley is strengthened. 

To Calculate Water in a Pipe — To calculate roughly the 
quantity of water in any given pipe or other cylindrical ves- 
sel, it is only necessary to remember that a pipe one yard, or 
three feet, long will hold about as many pounds of water as 
the square of its diameter in inches. Thus : If we have a 
pipe 20 inches in diameter and 16 feet long, we have simply 
to square 20 (20^=400), and multiply the result by the 
number of times 3 feet is contained in 16 feet=5)^ times; 
hence, 400x5)^=2,133 pounds. By increasing the result by 
2 per cent., or I -50th, a more nearly exact figure can be 
obtained. 



323 
BRASS AND ITS TREATMENT. 

Brass, as previously stated, is perhaps the best known and 
most useful alloy. It is formed by fusing together copper 
and zinc. Different proportions of these metals produce 
brasses possessing very marked distinctive properties. The 
portions of the different ingredients are seldom precisely alike; 
these depend upon the requirements of various uses for which 
the alloys are intended. Peculiar qualities of the constituent 
metals also exercise considerable influence on the results. 

Brass is fabled to have been first accidentally formed at the 
burning of Corinth, 146 B. C, but articles of brass have been 
discovered in the Egyptian tombs, which prove it to have had 
a much greater antiquity. Brass was known to the ancients 
as a more valuable kind of copper. The yellow color was con- 
sidered a natural quality, and was not suppose^ to indicate an 
alloy. Certain mines were much valued, as they yielded this 
gold-colored copper, but after a time it was found that by 
melting copper with a certain earth (calamine), the copper 
was changed in color. The nature of the change was still 
unsuspected- 
Alloy of copper and zinc retain their malleability and 
ductility when the zinc is not above 33 to 40 per cent, of the 
alloy. When the zinc is in excess of this, crystalline character 
begins to prevail. An alloy of one copper to two zinc may 
be crumbled in a mortar when cold. 

Yellow brass that files and turns w^ell may consist of cop- 
per 4, zinc I to 2. A greater proportion of zinc makes it 
harder and less tractable; with less zinc it is more tenacious 
and hangs to the file like copper. Yellow brass (copper 2, 
zinc i) is hardened by the addition of two to three per cent, 
of tin, or made more malleable by the same proportion of 
lead. 

There would be less diversity in the results of brass cast- 
ings if what was put in a crucible came out of it. The vola- 
tility of some metals, and the varied melting points of others 
in the same mix, greatly interfere with the uniformity in 
ordinary work. Zinc sublimes (burns away) at 773 to 800 
degrees, while the melting heat of the copper — with which it 
should be intimately mixed in making brass — is nearly 1,750 
degrees. Copper, zinc, tin and lead in varying proportions 
form alloys, always in definite quantity for a given alloy. 
The ease with which some of the metals are burned away at 
comparatively low temperatures renders it a very easy mat- 
ter to make several different kinds of metal with the same 
mix. This very thing occurs, and the great difficulty in get- 



324 

ting bearing brasses uniform in quality causes some engineers 
to babbitt all bearings as the best way to insure uiiiformity. 
One lot of castings may be soft and tough, another hard, 
and so on. 

Zinc is added the last thing as the crucible comes out of 
the furnace, and the mixing of the mass is a matter of uncer- 
tainty. If the metal is too hot for the zinc a large percent- 
age goes off in the form of a greenish cloud of vapor, and 
the longer the stirring goes on the more escapes. The two 
metals which enter into the composition of brass have an 
affinity for each other, but they must be brought into inti- 
mate contact before they wdll combine. Some brass founders 
use precautions to prevent volatilization of the more fusible 
metals, introducing them under a cover of powdered charcoal 
on top of the copper. 

" Brass finisher " is a term many understand as applied 
only to those who produce highly -finished brass work ; but it is 
not so ; the brass finisher's work is not the superior class of 
work supposed, most of it being comprised in gas fittings, 
ormolu mounts, etc., but the highest class of brass finishing 
is a totally different process. Fittings for gas work, all 
finished well enough for their several purposes, and as well 
done as the price paid for them wall allow, as well as the 
mountings for furniture, must obviously be produced at a low 
price, in order to supply the demand for cheap work of this 
character, most of which is simply dipping, burnishing and 
lacquering. 

Let us follow the process of finishing the highest class of 
brass work. Before commencing to polish, all marks of the 
file must be removed, and this is done thus : Having used a 
superfine Lancashire file to smooth both the edges and surfaces, 
take a piece of moderately fine emery paper and wrap i^ 
tightly, once only, round the file. By having many fold^* 
round the file the w^ork becomes rounded at the edges, 
and so made to look like second-rate things. Some use 
emery sticks, made of pieces of planed wood about ^ 
inch thick and ^ inch wide, quite flat on the surfaces. 
They are covered with thin glue, and the emery powdered onto 
them, and then allowed to dry hard. Most common work 
is rubbed over, not to say finished, with emery cloth. This 
will not do for good work. The paper folded once round 
the file is used in a similar manner to the file, and when the 
file-marks disappear, and the paper is worn, a little oil is 
used, which makes it cut smoother. T^he edges and surfaces 
being prepared to this extent, ti/e edges must be finished. 
To effect this take a piece of flat, soft wood, and apply to its 



325 

surface a little fine oil-stone powder; be sure that it is quite 
clean, as it is very annoying to make a deep scratch in the 
work just as it is finished; perhaps so deep that it will re- 
quire filing out. 

RECIPES FOR MAKING SEALING WAX. 

I. WHITE. 

Bleached shellac , 340 parts: 

Venice turpentine , 160 " 

Plaster of paris 100 " 

Magnesia 15 " 

Subnitrate of bismuth 150 " 

Carbonate of lead , 235 " 

Melt the turpentine in a capacious copper kettle over a 
charcoal fire, and gradually add the shellac. When a uniform 
melted mass has resulted, gradually add the solid ingredients, 
which must be in form of finest (bolted) powder, under con- 
stant stirring. Then remove the kettle, keep stirring until 
the mass cools short of solidifying, and pour it out into 
forms. 

2. YELLOW. 

Shellac 380 parts. 

Venice turpentine 320 " 

Rosin 160 " 

Plaster of paris 50 " 

Magnesia 10 " 

Chrome yellow 80 " 

Proceed as directed under i . 

3. GREEN. 

Shellac 500 parts. 

Venice turpentine 250 " 

Rosin 150 " 

Magnesia 20 " 

King's yellow (yellow litharge) 60 " 

Mountain (Sanders') blue 30 " 

Oil of turpentine 20 " 

Proceed as before, except that the coloring matters are 
best triturated to a fine paste with the oil of turpentine, and 
this paste added to the melted mass in small quantities at a 
time. Mountain blue is a copper color. 

ELECTRIC RAILWAYS FOR JAPAN. 

Japan goes ahead. The Mikado has now commissioned an 
engineer to visit the States, to gain information with the in- 
tention of introducing electric railways into Japan. 




Fior. I. 



326 

METAL-WORKING DIES AXD THEIR USES. 

BY HENRY LONG. 

In the following pages, which have been specially prepared 
for this work, will be found a condensed description of the 
commoner kinds of dies now in use for sheet-metal work. 
There being several kinds of pmiching presses, I will specify 
the variety in which each die can be used as I describe it. 
The commonest in use is the simple cutting-die, and I will 

describe it first. It can either 
be made by welding a steel ring 
of the shape desired on a 
wrought iron plate, and then 
dressing the hole out roughly 
to pattern while hot, or by 
drilling out a hole of the shape 
required through a piece of 
flat steel of proper dimensions, 
and then dressing it out with 
files, etc. , to exact size. While 
the former plan is most expen- 
sive, it is the best in regard to 
wear and quality of work. Fig. r represents a die of this 
kind. The forging for this die would be made as I explained 
above; that is, by welding a steel ring of the shape of 
the pattern on an iron plate, and cutting the hole 
through the iron afterward. The punch for this would be 
made similarly, only that the ring is the shape of pattern 
outside, and after welding to the iron plate it is trimmed off 
outside. There is also a shank to be welded on the other side 
of plate, as nearly central as possible, and large enough to 
finish up easily to size required. In making this die the two 
faces are planed off clean, and then the pattern is laid on top 
face and the die is marked from it. When this is done, it is 
put in the shaper and planed out to the marks, care being 
taken to throw the work forward in the chuck to ?ive about 
fQ in. clearance to the inch, in depth. 

^ It is now filed out and champfered off on face, as shown, 
viie r"ace being hollowed out 3V' on three or four sides after- 
ward to give it a shearing edge. It is now ready for tempering. 
As. the tempering requires great care it is very necessary to 
watch your heat closely, and while making it even, do not 
heat any higher than necessary, and plunge it carefully into 
cold soft water with one edge down, keeping it in there until 
perfectly colcL Now take it out and polish the face and 
inside well, and reheat very evenly as before until you observe 



327 

a dark straw color, when you can cool it off, as that is con- 
sidered a good temper, and one that will stand wear without 
breaking. The punch is pared off on both sides and shank 
turned up to size, and then the die is laid on it face to face 
and the shape marked out. Now it is shaped off to the lines 
and fitted closely in the die, the inside edge of punch being 
afterward champfered off as shown. This die can be used in 
any press, and is particularly designed for light metals such 
as zinc, tin, etc. A flat-cutting die would be made by taking 
a piece cut from the bar at least iX' longer and 
wider than your pattern, and, after planing it, lay 
your pattern on and mark the hole. Then drill around 
inside the marks and file out in same way as you do 
the other. The punch would be 
made same as last^ but without 
champfering off the edge. This die 
can be used in any press, and is 
designed for heavy work, such as 
hard brass, steel, etc. Sometimes 
there may be some narrow or weak 
part in the die which is likely to 
break out in time, in which case it is 
Fig. 2. economical to insert a plug as shown 

in Fig. 2. Of course these plugs 
can be renewed as often as necessary without disturbing 
thje form of the die. For round holes of small size, a s.teel 
plug is fitted in a soft steel plate, and the hole drilled and 
reamed through it, after which the plug is tempered. 

The punch is simply a socket with a set screw in which 
round steel of the right size is used, in this way saving any 
turning or fitting. Sometimes a gang of punches is used, as 
is shown in Fig. 3, for which a special punch is designed. In 
this, the shank is a separate piec^, and 
has a dove-tailed groove planed through 
it. This groove should be from y^" to 
%" larger in every way than the dimen- 
sions you wish to punch. It should also 
havCgV^ draft, or taper endwise to allow 
of a driving bit on the plate fitted in. 
This plate should be Yz" thick at least. 
You first drill all the holes in your die 
in the right position, and after reaming 
Fig. 3. them out, harden and temper it/ ^ou 

now place this plate, which you have fitted in the shank, on 
the face of the die in its true position and fasten it securely 
there. The next thing is to rvui the drill you used on the 




^^'l^l^l^l^l^i;;!^!^^^ 



328 

die, through tne die holes, and mark their exact position on 
this plate. When this is done, remove the die and drill the 
holes through from these marks, and countersink them from 
behind. Now, the stripper or guide, which should be about 
^^' thick, is fastened on in the position you wish it, and 
marked and drilled in the same way. The wire punches are 
made by riveting over a head on one end and then driving 
them in from the back, afterward filing off any superfluous 
metal which extends above the back. When you have made a 
gauge and placed it under the stripper, fastening securely, the 
die will be finished. 

The punches should be filed to an even face, and then hol- 
lowed out a little to give more ease in cutting. All the dies 
mentioned thus far can be used in any ordinary press. We 
will noWtake up the different kinds of form- 
ing dies. There are only two kinds, half- 
round and square; all others are modifica- 
tions of these. The depth of a half-round 
forming die should be two -thirds of the 
diameter to give the best results, and the 
punch should go down into the groove as 
shown in Fig. 4. A mandril is necessary to 
form the work over in the die. A square 
or box-forming die is simply a square hole 
of the right size, cut through the die, per- 
fectly parallel, and with the upper corners 
rounded a little. If a smooth flat 
bottom is required it is usual to make 
the die of thinest steel, and put a plate 
under it as in Fig. 5, with a pad and 
spring, to throw it out. The punch 
is size of the inside of box, and a close 
fit. A die for forming a shape at any 
angle is simply a groove planed thro' 
the block and having a punch to fit 
it. Fig. 6 is a view of a common 
form of drawing die for deep work. 
They are used for making caps, cart- 
ridge cases, etc. It consists of a 
round disk of steel about 7/^" deep 
with a hole the size of shell required bored in it . 

This hole is well rounded off at the corner, and counter- 
Dored from the bottom with a square, sharp shoulder for 
stripping the work off the punch after it has passed through 
the die. A cast-iron holder with set screw is generally used 
with these dies for convenience in changing. The punch is 




Fig. 4. 




Fig. 5. 




329 

fitted into a socket in the shank and held by 
a set screw. It is rounded on the corners to 
give the metal a better chance to turn up 
around it. When the punch and die are set 
the blank is laid on the die, and the punch 
should be tight enough to carry it through 
without a wrinkle. If the shell is not long 
enough after this operation, make a die a 
little smaller and a punch the same, and after 
annealing the shells pass them through it. By 
repeating this operation you can produce 
shells of almost any length. Sometimes it is 
■^^S- ^- necessary to make a die to perform some 
operation on the edge of a box which has already been formed. 
In this case the die is made in such a way that the box can 
be put on it, thus placing the die on the 
inside. A hub is made the shape of the 
box, and with the die dovetailed into its 
upper side, a hole being bored down 
through the hub to allow the cuttings to 
fall through. This hub is fitted into a 
special holder as shown. The punch is 
made in the same way as others. These 
dies can be used for any operation that 
a flat die performs, such as cutting, form- 
ing, etc. As I have given a description 
of the different forms of simple dies, I will now explain some 
double and combination dies. A double die is two distinct 
dies in one plate, and it may be extended to include three 
or four, although the work gets complicated in this case, 
and the economy is doubtful. 

This die may be composed 
of two cutting dies, or one cut- 
ting and one forming die, or, in 
fact, any combination which 
may seem desirable. It is gen- 
erally used for cutting dies, 
such as washers, etc. Fig. 8 
shows the plan of one of these 
dies designed to make a washer. 
You will perceive that the first 
punch is the size of the hole in 
the washer and the second cuts 
out the washer itself. The 
punches are set in a long, flat 
socket, and fastened with set 
screws. The main point in these 






Fig. 8. 



dies is to get them correctly spaced so as to cut out all the 
stock. They can be used in a power or foot press. A conT- 
bination die is one which performs two or more operations in 
one die. Fig. 9 is one of these, designed to make a black- 
ing-box cover. In this die the punch comes down and cuts 
out the blank which is 
immediately gripped be- 
tween the two face a 
and b^ and held firmly 
enough to prevent 
wrinkling, but still to 
allow of its being drawn 
through and over the 
form which is in the 
center of the die. 
When tne press is on the 
return stroke, the ring b 
follows the punch up and 
pushes the cover off 
again, while the pad in 
the punch does the same 
there, thus having the 
cover loose on the top 
of the die. These dies 






Fig. 10. 



Fig. 9. 
must be operated in a power 
press, or one specially 41 de- 
signed for the purpose, and 
they are more conveniently 
worked in an inclined than 
a horizontal press, as the 
work will then fall off by the 
force of its own gravity. 

Fig. 10 is a die of the 
same class, but with another 
operation added. It is de- 
signed to make a pepper-box 
cover, and perforates four 
holes in it after it is drawm. 
The punch, as you \^all per- 
ceive, is entirely different in 
its construction. The die is 
the same, excepting that four 
cutting holes or dies are 
drilled in the top of theform 



331 

or plug, and the inside is bored out to allow the cuttings to 
fall through. The stub is also bored out for the same reason. 
In the punch a is the shank, bored out as shown, b is the 
cutting edge or punch proper ; it is bored or chambered out 
for the pad c to work in it. d is a plate that screws into the 
top of the punch b, to act as a back for the pad c to press 
against, and also as a holder for the four small punches. It 
has three holes in it, through which short pins work to com- 
municate the power of spring E to the pad c. ^is a washer 
under the spring, and 6^ is a plug or pin that screws in the top 
of shank, and- extends down to the plate d, against which 
it presses, in this way hold-ing the small pin punches down 
to place, and guiding and regulating the spring at the same 
time. The operation of the die is the same as Fig. 9, only 
that after the tin has been drawn down its full length, the 
small punches cut the holes through the top, and then the 
pad c acts as a stripper for these punches at the same time 
as it punches the cap out of the large punch. 

As all other combinations are made on this plan, it is 
hardly necessary to describe any others. 

Fig. II represents a die for doing the same work, but in 
what is called a cam or double-action press. These dies are 

much simpler and 
cheaper to make and 
do equally good work 
with the others. The 
piece A is the cutting 
punch, and works in 
the die B. After cut- 
ting the blank it 
passes down until it 
presses the blank 
against the face shown 
on the inside of the 
die. While it is hold- 
ing the blank firmly 
there the fo r m i n g 
cutting punch and 






Fisr. II. 



punch C passes down through the 

forces the tin down through the inside die B, in this way 
forming it into any shape desired. In passing up again it 
strips the box off against the underpart of tliedie, allowing it 
to fall into a box underneath. This covers the list as an- 
nounced in the beginning of this article, and although the 
different kinds of dies are endless, the foregoing description 
will enable the reader to judge of the best way of doing work, 
and there is hardly any pattern which cannot be produced by 
S)ne or more of these dies in combination. 



33^ 

mjLE TO FIND THE STRENGTH OF BOILER 
SHELLS AND FLUES. 

The pressure for any dimension of boiler can be ascertained 
oy the following rule, viz. : 

Multiply one-sixth (>^th) of the lowest tensile strength 
found stamped on any plate in the cyhndrical shell by the 
thickness — expressed in inches, or parts of an inch — of the 
thinnest plate in the same cylindrical sheU, and di\ided by the 
radius or half diameter — also expressed in inches — and the 
quotient will be the pressure allowable per square inch of sur- 
face for single riveting, to which add twenty per centum for 
double riveting. 

Boilers built prior to February 28, 1872, shall be deemed 
to have a tensile strength of 50,000 pounds to the square inch, 
whether stamped or not. 

For cylindrical hoiieTjl?ies over 16, and less than 40 inches 
in diameter, the follo^^^ng formulas shall be used in determin- 
ing the pressure allowable. 

Let D = diameter of flue in inches. 
1760 = A constant. 

T = thickness of flue in decmials of an inch, 
P = pressure of steam allowable, in pounds, 
1760 

= F, a factor. 

D 

.31 = C, a constant. 
FXT 

Formula : = P. 

C 

EXAMPLE. 

Given, a flue 20 inches in diameter, and .37 of an inch in 
thickness ; w^hat pressure could be allowed by the inspectors? 
1760 88X.37 

F = = 88 J then, = 105 + pounds as the allowa- 

20. .31 ble pressure. 

TO CALCULATE THE SPEED OF A BELT, 
To find the speed a belt is traveling per minute, multiply 
the diameter infect of either pulley by 3.7 times its revolutions 
per minute ; the result is the feet travel of belt per minute if 
there is no slip. At the recent " Inventions Exhibition " in 
Liverpool, the indicated horse-power transmitted by the belt- 
ing averaged, on trial, per one inch width of belt a horse 
power, a speed of 200 feet per minute ; it would seem that a 
liberal factor of slip should be allowed out;-ide of this. 



333 



olZES 


AND WEIGHT OF 


SHEET TIN. 




No. of 


Dimensions. 


Wt. 


Mark. 


sheets 






of 




in Box. 


Length 


Brdth. 


Box. 






Inches. 


Inches. 


Lbs. 


IC 


225 


13^ 

13X 

a 


10 


112 


lie 


9'X 

9/2 
10 


105 

98 

140 


IIIC 


u 


IX 


u 


IXX 




a 
a 


161 


IXXX 


182 


IXXXX 


" 


" 


a 


203 


DC. 


100 


I63^ 
a 

a 


12K 


126 


DX 




DXX 


147 


DXXX 


" 


u 


" 


168 


DXXXX.... 


a 


u 


u 


189 


5 DC 

5 I^X. 


200 


15 


II 


168 


a 


a 


u 


189 


r DXX 

i DXXX.... 


" 


a 


a 


210 


u 


» 


" 


231 


? DXXXX... 
few 


(( 


a 


" 


252 


225 


i ^sH 


10 


112 



The following table, showing the number of pounds per 
foot in various woods, in different stages of dryness : 

Shipping Thoroughly 



Green. dry. 

White ash 4^ 4 

Gray ash 4)4 3^ 

Birch S'A 4>^ 

Basswood 334^ 3 

Gottonwood 3^ 3 

eherry 5 4j^ 

ehestnut 4X 3)4 

Soft elm 4 3 j4 

Rock elm 5 4X 

Hickory S'A 4^ 

Hard maple ^X 4^ 

Bird's-eye maple .... 5^ 4X 

eurly maple 4^ 4 

White oak 6 5 

Red oak SH AYz 

Sycamore 5 4 

Walnut 6 5 

Wh'tcv/ood ^Yz y/2 



air dried. 

3 
4 
2^ 

3K 

23/ 



4 

3^ 

4X 

3>^ 

3 

4 

2^ 



Kiln 
dried. 
24-S 

2% 
2% 
3 

2^ 

3X 
3>i 
3 
3 

214' 

4 

3 

3,34: 



334 



CALIBER AND WEIGHTS OF LEAD PIPES. 



CALIBER. 



^ in, tubing 

f^ in. aqueduct . . 

light. 

medium . . . 

strong . . . . 

ex. strong. 
)4 in. aqueduct . . 

ex. light. . . 

light 

medium . . . 

strong . . . 

ex. strong, 
^ in. aqueduct. . . 

ex. light. . . 

light 

medium . . . 

strong. . . . 

ex. strong, 
^ in. aqueduct. . 

ex. light. . . 

light 

medium . . . 

strong . . . 

ex. strong 
J4 in. aqueduct . , 

ex. light. . , 

light 

I in. aqueduct . . , 

ex. light. . 

light 

medium. . , 

strong.... , 

ex. strong. 
l}4- in. aqueduct. 

ex. light. . 

light 

^ medium. . , 

F trong . . . 

*^. strong. 



WEIGHT 

PER 

FOOT. 



LBS. 



OZ. 

6 



ID 
12 

4 

12 

8 

12 

4 

12 



4 

12 



12 
12 



CALIBER. 



ij^ in. aqueduct. . . 

ex. light 

light 

medium 

strong 

ex. strong. . . 

1 ^ in. light 

light 

medium 

strong 

ex. strong... . 

2 in. waste 

2 in. ex. light 

light 

medium 

strong 

ex. strong. . . 
2^ in. 3-16 thick. . 

X thick 

5-16 thick... 
ys thick 

3 in. waste 

3-16 thick.. . 

X thick 

5-16 thick.. . 

^S thick 

S}4 in. X thick. . . . 
5-16 thick.. . 
J^ thick 

4 in. waste 

X thick 

5-16 thick. . . 

ys thick 

7-16 thick.. . 
4^ in. waste 

5 in. waste 



WEIGHT 
PER 
FOOT. 



LBS. 
3 

3 

4 
5 
6 

7 
3 
4 
5 
6 
8 
3 
4 
5 
7 



II 
14 
17 
5 
9 
12 
16 
20 

15 
iS 

21 

5 

16 

21 

^6 



335 
WEIGHT OF CIRCULAR BOILER HEADS. 



Diam. 




Thickness of Iron. — Inches. 




in 




t 












inches. 


3-16 


X 


5-16 


/8 


7-16 


K 


9-16 


i6 


II 


H 


18 


21 


25 


28 


32 


i8 


13 


18 


22 


27 


31 


36 


40 


20 


17 


22 


27 


33 


38 


44 


I"" 


22 


20 


■ 27 


33 


40 


47 


\^ 


60 


24 


24 


32 


40 


47 


55 


64 


71 


26 


28 


37 


46 


56 


64 


75 


84 


28 


32 


43 


1^ 


65 


75 


%(> 


97 


30 


Zl 


5? 


62 


74 


^1 


100 


1X2 


32 


42 


56 


70 


84 


99 


112 


127 


34 


48 


64 


79 


96 


III 


- 128 


143 


36 


54 


71 


89 


108 


125 


142 


161 


38 


60 


79 


99 


120 


139 


158 


179 


40 


(^6 


%^ 


no 


132 


154 


176 


198 


42 


73 


97 


121 


146 


170 


194 


220 


44 


80 


107 


133 


160 


187 


214 


240 


46 


88 


117 


145 


176 


204 


234 


262 


48 


95 


127 


158 


190 


222 


254 


286 


50 


103 


138 


172 


206 


241 


276 


310 


52 


112 


149 


186 


224 


260 


298 


335 


54 


121 


160 


200 


242 


281 


320 


362 


56 


130 


172 


214 


260 


302 


344 


389 


58 


139 


185 


231 


278 


324 


370 


417 


60 


149 


198 


247 


298 


336 


396 


446 



HOW TO. CALCULATE THE CAPACITY OF 
TANKS. 

In circular tanks, every foot of depth, five feet diameter, 
g^ves AtYz barrels of 3 1 ^ gallons each ; six feet diameter, 6^ 
barrels ; seven feet diameter, 9 barrels ; eight feet diameter, 
12 barrels; nine feet diameter, 15 barrels; ten feet diameter, 
18^ barrels. In the case of square tanks, for every foot of 
depth 5 feet by 5 feet gives 6 barrels; 6 by 6 feet, 8^ bar- 
rels; 7 by 7 feet, ii>^ barrels; 8 by 8 feet, 15;^ barrels ; 9 
by 9 feet, 19^ barrels; 10 by 10 feet, 23 J^ barrels. 



NUMBER OF BOILER RIVETS IN A loo POUND 
KEG. 



Length. 


^2 


9-16 


yi 


ii-i6 


X 


^ 


Inch. 


Inch. 


Inch. 


Inch. 


Inch. 


Inch. 


I 


990 


760 


560 


450 






iVz 


875 


725 


530 


415 






1% 


800 


690 


490 


389 


356 


228 


1/8 


760 


650 


460 


370 


329 


211 


I>^ 


730 


625 


425 


ZS1 


290 


180 


iH 


710 


595 


505 


340 


271 


174 


iH 


690 


550 


390 


325 


264 


169 


ips 


665 


530 


375 


312 


257 


165 


2 


630 


510 


360 


297 


248 


156 


2% 


590 


500 


354 


289 


237 


152 


2X 


555 


490 


347 


280 


232 


149 


2/2 


525 


475 


335 


260 


219 


141 


2% 


500 


440 


312 


242 


211 


133 


3 


460 


410 


290 


224 


203 


127 


3X 


430 


380 


267 


212 


190 


115 


3K 


410 


350 


248 


201 


180 


108 


3^ 


395 


335 


241 


192 


162 


102 


4 




326 


230 


184 


158 


99 


4X 




312 


220 


-^11 


150 


96 


A% 




298 


210 


171 


146 




A% 




284 


200 


166 


138 


89 


5 




270 


190 


161 


135 


87 


5X 




256 


180 


156 


130 


84 


sX 




244 


172 


151 


124 


80 


5X 




233 


164 


145 


120 


77 


6 




223 


157 


140 


JI5 


74 


6X 




213 


150 


137 


III 


71 


6 




207 


146 


134 


107 


69 


6 




203 


143 


129 


104 


67 


7 




n8 


140 


125 


100 


64 



To Bronze Iron Castings. — After having thoroughly 
cleaned the castings, immerse them in a solution of sulphate 
of copper. The castings will then take on a coa<"ing of cop- 
per. Then wash thoroughly in water. 

Copper is said to lose 18 per cent, of its tenacity upon 
being raised from 60° to 360^. 



337 

NUMBER OF "AMERICAN" NAILS AND CUT 

SPIKES IN A POUND. 



.s 

-si 




d 







^ 




1 


1 


c c_ 


<v 




f^ 


'55 


X* 






(U t— t 


.^ 





a; 


ri 







;3 


H-! 


CO 


1050 


'r^H 


u 


PQ 


Ph 


U 


I 


2 F 












i/s 


3 F 


860 












I 


2 


900 












iX 


3 


500 




650 




670 




iK 


4 


300 




480 


450- 


500 




iX 


5 


212 




350 


300 


370 




2 


6 


160 


85 


240 


212 


260 




2X 


7 


135 


65 


190 


160 


210 




2>^ 


8 


95 


50 


135 


120 


15s 




23< 


9 


p 


40 










3 


lO 


60 


35 


JI5 


100 


135 


16 


3X 


12 


48 


30 


100 




120 




3>^ 


i6 


34 


25 


80 




100 


14 


4 


20 


24 


20 


' 65 




85 


12 


4X 


30 


18 




50 




70 


10 


5 


40 


15 




40 




60 


9 


5>^ 


50 


12 










8 


6 


60 


10 










6 


7 














4>^ 


8 














4 



Clinch-nails weigh about the same as common. 

Box-nails are made y^ inch shorter than common nails of 
same sizes. 

5 lbs. of 4d or 3^ lbs. of 3d will lay 1,000 shingles. 5^ 
lbs, of 3d fine will put on 1,000 laths, four nails to the lath. 

Bricks made from the refuse of slate quarries are stronger 
than stone; they stand 7,200 lbs. compression against 6,000 
for stone, and 3,200 lbs. for common brick. The cost is from 
$12 to $20 per thousand. 

In London 20,000 men earn their living at carpenter work' 
4,000 in Paris, and 4,000 in Berlin. Hours in London are 

52 j^ per week. 



338 
\YAXING FLOORS. 
Take a pound of the best beeswax, cut it up into very small 
pieces, and let it thoroughly dissolve in three pints of turpen- 
tine, stirring occasionally if necessary. The mixture should 
be only a trifle thicker than the clear turpentine. Apply it 
^^'ith a rag to the surface of the floor, which should be smooth 
and perfectly clean. This is the difficult part of the work, 
for, if you put on either too much or too little, a good polish 
"vvill be impossible. The right amount varies, less being 
required for hard, close-grained wood, and more if the wood 
is soft and open-grained. Even professional " waxers " are 
sometin\es obliged to experiment, and no\-ices should always 
try a square foot or two first. Put on what you think wiH be 
enough, and leave the place untouched and unstepped on for 
twenty-four hours, or longer if needful When it is thor- 
oughly dry, rub it with a hard brush until it shines. If it 
pohshes well, repeat the process over the entire floor. If it 
does not, remove the wax with fine sandpaper and try again, 
using more or less than before, as may be necessary, and con- 
tinuing your experimenting until you secure the desired result. 
If the mixture is slow in drying, add a little of any of the 
common " dryers" sold by paint dealers, japan for instance, 
in the proportion of one part of the drier to six parts of tur- 
pentine. ^^^3en the floor is a large one, you may agreeably 
vary the tedious work of polishing by strapping a brush to 
each foot and skating over it. 

HOW TO MAKE AX IVORY GLOSS OX WOOD. 
A most attractive ivory gloss is now imparted to wood 
surfaces by means of a simple process with varnish, the latter 
being of two kinds, namely, one a solution of colorless resin 
in turpentine, the other in alcohol. For the first, the purest 
copal is taken, while for the second sixteen parts of sandarac 
are dissolved in sufficient strong alcohol, to which are added 
three parts of camphor, and finally, when aU these are dis- 
solved, they are combined \vith five parts of well-shaken 
Venice turpennne. In order to insure the color remaining 
a pure white, particular care is essential that the oil be not 
mixed with the white paint pre\-iously put on. The best 
French zinc paint, mixed with turpentine, is employed, and^ 
when dn,% this is rubbed down with sandpaper, following 
which the varnish described is appHed. 



339 
CARE OF OAK LUMBER. 

Throughout the civilized world, except in extremely hot 
countries, one or more species of the oak is found. In this 
country oak forests abound in almost all the Southern and 
Central States. In species there are so many that even 
experienced lumbermen are frequently perplexed to correctly 
designate to which class a sample piece of wood belongs. 
Ordinarily in the yard trade but two kinds are known — 
white and red. Among shipbuilders, carriage-makers and 
machinists may be found live oak, a species of wood that is 
peculiarly adapted to purposes where immense strength is 
necessary. The average lumberman, when he talks about 
white oak or red oak, is influenced solely by the color of the 
wood when it becomes partially seasoned. Again and again 
veterans in the wood-working business have been known to 
select red oak for white, and vice versa iilTfact, from a 
dozen specimens of six different species of oak, they have 
been unable to correctly name a single sample. 

Oak is a wood • which calls for unusual and unceasing 
care .in its manufacture. The tendency of oak, from the 
moment an ax is planted in the side of the tree, is to split, 
crack, and play all sorts of mean tricks on the owner. Such 
tendencies can be held in hand, and almost absolutely 
obviated, by following certain rules. A thick coat of water- 
proof paint applied to the ends of the logs is a wise expendi- 
ture ; it prevents the absorption of moisture. Oak, when 
piled, should have the ends protected so as to prevent absorp- 
tion of rain and moisture, followed by the baking process of 
a hot sun Alternate moisture and heat is the prime cause 
' of checks and cracks, and when such defects begin in oak 
they are bound to increase and ruin otherwise perfect stock. 

Oak should be stuck as fast as sawed. It is a mistake to 
permit it to lie in a dead pile even for a single day. It is a 
wood that contains a large amount of acid, which oozes to the 
surface as fast as the lumber is sawed, and, if the stock is 
allowed to remain piled solid, it is apt, even in a few hours, 
to cause stain on the surface. The lumber should be stuck 
in piles not over six feet in width. The bottom course 
should be raised two feet from the ground, and a space of five 
inches left between the pieces. It is advisable to follow this 
rule up to about the fifth course, when the space can be 
gradually diminished to two inches, and continued to the top 
of the pile. In this way air has free circulation through the 
pile, and the lumber will dry readily. The pile should cant 
toward the back, so that rain will follow the inclination. 



340 

Board sticks not over three inches wide should be used, 
the front stick placed so as to project a half inch beyond the 
lumber. This plan permits moisture to gather in the stick, 
not the lumber. Other sticks should be placed not over four 
feet apart, and in building the pile the sticks should be 
exactly over one another. By this plan, warps, twists and 
sags are avoided. 

It is advisable to pile every length by itself. This rule 
permits more systematic piling, and, in shipping, consign- 
ments can be made of lengths precisely as wanted. Thick- 
nesses in piling should never be mixed. Twisted stock is 
certain to be the result if this advice is ignored. 

The sap should be placed downward. The draft is up- 
ward, and any practical lumberman can readily observe the 
advantage of this advice. Every pile should be well covered 
with sound culls, the covering so placed as to project beyond 
all sides of the pile. Raise it a foot from the top course. 
The piles should not be nearer than twenty inches apart; 
twenty-four inches is better. 

HOW TO SHARPEN A PLANE-IE ON. 

The simple art of sharpening a plane-iron is supposed to 
be unders*"Ood by every mechanic, remarks a writer in a 
contemporary, but there are hundreds of men who cannot do 
a creditable job in this respect. The common tendency is to 
round off the edge of the tool until it gets so stunted that 
under a part of the cutting the tool strikes the work back of 
the cutting edge. To do the job correctly we will begin at 
the beginning, and grind the tool properly. First, the kind 
of wood to be cut must be taken into consideration. Com-' 
mon white pine can best be worked with a very thin tool, 
ground down even to an angle of 30 degrees, provided the 
make of the tool will allow it. Some planes will not, for the 
iron stands so " stunt," or nearly perpendicular, that its grind- 
ing causes a severe scraping action, which soon wears away the 
tool. In such cases, from 45 to 60 degrees is the proper 
angle for plane-irons, and this, too, is about right for hard- 
wood planing. "^ 

Determine the angle you want on the plane-iron and then 
grind to that angle, taking care to grind one flat bevel, and 
not work up a dozen facets. If the stone be small, say 12 to 
18 inches in diameter, the bevel will be slightly concave 
like the side of a razor, and this is a quality highly prized by 
many good workmen. In grinding, take care to avoid a 
"feather edge." If the tool already possesses the right 



341 

shape, grind carefully right up to this edge, but not grinding 
it entirely off. The time to stop grinding a tool is just before 
the old bevel is ground off. 

Should the tool need any change of shape, such as the 
grinding out of a nick or a broken place, then put the edge 
of the tool against the stone and bring the tool to the de- 
sired shape before touching the bevel. 

Let the iron lay perfectly flat upon the stone, with a 
tendency only to bear harder upon the edge of the bevel 
than upon the heel. Move the iron back and forth on the 
stone as fast as your skill will allow, taking care that the 
heel of the bevel is not hfted from the stone. As you be- 
come proficient in whetting an iron, the heel may be lifted 
from the stone about the thickness of a sheet of paper, cr 
just enough to prevent it from touching. The reason why 
many carpenters cannot set an edge is because they raise 
their hand too much, and perhaps rock the tool^ thus forming 
a rounding bevel, the sure mark of a poor edge-setter. 

The proper way to oil-stone a tool is to continue the 
grinding by rubbing on the oil-stone until the bevel left by 
the grindstone is entirely moved and the edge keen and 
sharp. If this be properly done the tool need not be touched 
upon its face to the stone, but among a dozen good edge- 
setters not more than one can do it. It is a delicate opera- 
tion, and can only be acquired by long practice. Nine times 
out of ten the average workman is obliged to turn the plane- 
iron over and wet the face thereof, and here is where many 
men fail who have done the other things well. By raising the 
back of the tool only a very little the edge is "dubbed off," 
and regrinding of the face becomes an immediate necessity. 
A good stone should " set " an edge on a tool wh.ih will shave 
off the hair on a person's wrist without cutting the skin or 
missing a smgle hair. 

VALUE OF MAHOGANY. 
As is known to every woodworker, mahogany has no 
equal for durability, brilliancy, and intrinsic value for any 
work which requires nicety of detail and elegance of finish. 
Cherry, which is a pretty wood for effect, and extremely 
pleasing when first finished, soon grows dull and grimy- 
looking. Oak, which has been so much used of late, is 
attractive when first finished, but experience teaches that it 
does not take many months to change all this, and instead of 
alight, fresh looking interior, one that has a dusty appear- 
ance is presented, which no amount of scraping and re- 



342 

caking will restore to its original beauty. What applies to 
in this yet more applicable to ash. 

Mahogany, however, seems to thrive best under the condi- 
tions which are detrimental to these other woods. At first 
of a light tone, it grows deeper and more beautiful in color 
with age, and although its first cost is more than these other 
woods, yet its price is much less than is popularly supposed ; 
and the only objection urged against it has been cost. What 
is more valuable, however, and what makes mahogany in 
reality a less costly wood, is the fact that, unlike cherry, oak 
or ash, it is easily cleaned, because it is impervious to dust or 
dirt, while it does not show wear, and instead of growing 
duller, grows brighter and more pleasing in appearance. 
While first cost is more than that of cherry, oak or ash,, it is 
nevertheless true that the judgment of many m.en has led 
them to regard mahogany as the cheaper wood when its dura- 
bility and cleanly qualities are considered, and to-day it takes 
front rank in first-class material. 

POLISHING GRANITE. 

The form is given to the stone by the hands of skilled j ! 
masons in much the same way as is done with other stone of 
softer nature. Of course, the time required is considerably 
greater in the case of granite as compared with other stones. 
If the surface is not to be polished, but only fine-axed, as it 
is called, that is done by the use of a hammer composed of a 
number of slips of steel of about a sixteenth of an inch thick, 
which are tightly bound together, the edges being placed on 
the same plane. With this tool the workman smooths the 
surface of the stone by a series of taps or blows given at a 
right angle to the surface operated upon. By this means 
the marks of the blows as given obliquely on the surface of 
the stone are obliterated, and a smooth face produced. 
Polishing is performed by rubbing, in the first place, mth 
an iron tool and with sand and water. Emery is next 
applied, then putty with flannel. All plain surface and 
molding can be done by machinery, but all carvings, or sur- 
faces broken into small portions of various elevations, are 
done by the hands of the patient hand-polishers. 

The operation of sawing a block of granite into slabs for 
panels, tables or chimney-pieces is a very slow process, the 
rate of progress being about half an inch per day of ten hours. 
The machines employed are few and simple; they are tech- 
nically called lathes, wagons and pendulums or rubbers. The 
lathes are employed for the polishing of columns, the wagons 



343 

for flat surfaces, and the pendulums for molding and such flat 
work as is not suitable for the wagon. In the lathe the 
column is placed and supported at each end by points upon 
which it revolves. On the upper surface of the column there 
are laid pieces of iron segments of the circumference of the 
column. The weight of these pieces of iron lying upon the 
column, and the constant supply of the lathe-attendant of 
sand and water, emery or putty, according to the state of 
finish to which the column has been brought, constitute the 
whole operation. While sand is used during the rougher 
state of the process these irons are bare, but when using emery 
and putty, the surface of the iron next to the stone is covered 
with thick flannel. 

The wagon is a carriage running upon rails, in which th ' 
pieces of stone to be polished are fixed, having ^.ppermost the 
surface to be operated upon. Above this surface there are 
shafts placed perpendicularly, on the lower end of which are 
fixed rings of iron. These rings rest upon the stone, and 
when the shaft revolves they rub the surface of the stone. At 
the same time the wagon travels backward and forward 
upon the rails, so as to expose the whole surface of the stone 
to the action of the rings. The pendulum is a frame hung 
upon hinges from the roof of the workshop. To this frame 
are attached iron rods, moving in a horizontal direction. In 
the line upon which these rods move, and under them, the 
stone is firmly placed upon the floor. Pieces of iron are then 
loosely attached to the rods, and allowed to rest upon the sur- 
face of the stone. When the whole is set in motion, these 
irons are dragged backward and forward over the surface of 
the stone, and so it is polished. When j)olishing plain sur- 
faces, such as the needle of an obelisk, the pieces of iron are 
flat; but when we have to polish a molding, we make an 
extra pattern of its form, and the irons are cast from that 
pattern. 

IN FAVOR OF SMALL TIMBER. 

The statement that a 12x12 inch beam, built up of 2x12 
planks spiked together, is stronger than a 12x12 inch solid tim- 
ber, will strike a novice as exceedingly absurd. An authority 
on the subject says every millwright and carpenter knows that it 
is so, whether he ever tested it by actual experience or not. 
The inexperienced will fail to see why a timber will be 
stronger simply because the adjacent vertical longitudinal 
portions of the wood have been separated by a saw, and if 
this were the only thing about it, it would not be stronger, 



344 

"but the old principle that a chain is no stronger that its 
weakest link comes into consideration. Most timbers have 
knots in them, or are sawed at an angle to the grain, so that 
they will split diagonally under a comparatively light load. 
In a built-up timber no large knots can weaken the beam 
except so much of it as is composed of one plank, and planks 
whose grain runs diagonally will be strengthened by the 
other pieces spiked to them. 

VALUABLE ARTESIAN WELLS. 

Two artesian wells recently sunk in Sonoma Valley, 
Cal., are considered to be worth not less than $io.cxx) each. 
One of them flows 90,000 gallons of water per day, and the 
other 100,000. 



The cement by which many stone buildings in Paris have 
been renovated is likely to prove useful in preparing the 
foundations for machinery. The powder which forms the 
basis of the cement is composed of two parts of oxide of 
zinc, two of crushed limestone and one of pulverized grit, 
together with a certain proportion of ochre, as a coloring 
agent. The liquid with which this powder is to be mixed 
consists of a saturated solution of six parts of zinc in com- 
mercial muriatic acid, to which is added one part of sal-ammo- 
niac. This solution is diluted with two-thirds of its volume 
of water. A mixture of one pound of the powder to two 
and a half pints of the liquid forms a cement which hardens 
quickly, and is of gpeat strength. 

Large cylinders of window-glass are now cut by encircling 
the cylinder with a fine wire, which is then heated to redness 
by an electric current, and a drop of water being allowed to 
fall upon the hot glass a perfectly clean cut is obtained. 
The old method was to draw out a fiber of white-hot semi- 
molten glass from the furnace by means of tongs, and to 
^^Tap it round the cylinder. 

The Hudson Bay Company, which was incorporated 225 
years ago, is the oldest incorporated company. 

The grindstone quarries along the shores of the Bay of 
Fundy are developed when the tide is down. The best ma- 
terial is down low in the bay. 

Some fine pearb were recently discovered in Tyrone (Ire- 
"■^nd) rivers. 



345 



WOODEN BEAMS. 
Safe Load. Uniformly Distributed, for Rectan- 
gular White or Yellow Pine Beams one inch 
thick, 

allowing 1,200 lbs. per square inch fibre strain. 

To obtain the safe load for any thickness, multiply the 
safe load given in table by the thickness of beam. 

To obtain the required thickness for any load, divide 
by the safe load for i inch given in table. 



3^ 






DEPTH OF BEAM. 


i^ 


















I 1 






to 


6'^ 


7" 


8" 


9" 


W 


11" 


12'M13'' 


14." 


l^" 


16" 


PmI 


Lbs. 


Lb^ 


Lbs. 


Lb& 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs, 


Lbs. 


^ 


960 


1310 


1710 


2160 


2670 


8230 


3840 


4510 


5230 


6000 


6830 


3 


800 


1090 


1420 


1800 


2220 


2690 


8200 


3760 


4860 1 5000 


5690 


7 


690 


930 


1220 


1540 


1900 


2300 


2740 


3220 


8730 


4290 


4880 


8 


600 


820 


1070 


1350 


1670 


2020 


2400 


2820 


3270 


8750 


4270 


9 


530 


730 


950 


1200 


1480 


1790 


2130 


2500 


2900 


3330 


3790 


10 


480 


650 


850 


1080 


1330 


1610 


1920 


2250 


2610 


3000 


3410 


11 


440 


590 


780 


980 


1210 


1470 


1750 


2050 


2380 


2730 


3100 


12 


400 


540 


710 


900 


1110 


1340 


1600 


1830 


2180 


2500 


2840 


13 


370 


500 


660 


830 


1030 


1240 


1480 


1730 


2010 


2310 


2630 


14 


840 


470 


610 


TTO 


950 


1150 


1370^1610 


1870 


2140 


2440 


15 


320 


440 


570 


720 


890 1 1080 


1280 ; 1500 


1740 


2000 


2280 


16 


300 


410 


530 


680 


830 


1010 


1200 


1410 


163A 


1880 


2130 


17 


280 


880 


500 


640 


780 


950 


1130 


1330 


154C 


1760 


2010 


18 


270 


860 


470 


600 


740 


900 


1070 1 1250 


1450 


1670 


1900 


19 


250 


340 


450 


570 


700 


850 


1010 


1190 


1380 j 1580 


1800 


20 


240 


830 


430 


540 


670 


810 


960 


1130 


1310 


1500 


1710 


21 


230 


310 


410 


510 


630 


770 


910 


1070 


1240 


1430 


1630 


22 


220 


300 


890 


490 


610 


730 


870 


1020 


1190 


1860 


1550 


23 


210 


280 


370 


470 


580 


700 


830 


980 


1140 


1300 


1480 


24 


200 


270 


360 


450 


560 


670 


800 


940 


1090 


1250 


1420 


25 


190 


260 


340 


430 


530 


650 


770 


900 


1050 


1200 


1370 


26 


180 


250 


830 


420 


510 


620 


740 


870 


1010 


1150 


1310 


27 


180 


240 


320 


400 


500 


600 


710 


830 


970 


1110 


1260 


28 


170 


230 


300 


390 


480- 


680 


690 


800 


930 


1070 


1220 


29 


170 


230 


290 


870 


460 


660 


660 


780 


900 


1030 


1180 



346 

WEIGHT OF 
A CUBIC FOOT OF SUBSTANCE. 



Names of Substances. 

Anthracite^ solid, of Pennsylvania, 
" broken, loose, 

*' • *' moderately shaken, 

** heaped bushel, loose, 

Ash, American white, dry, - - 
Asf>haltum, - - • '>k?V - 
Brass, (Copper and Zinc,) csist, - 

«' rolled, - - . ' . ;. - 
Brick, best pressed,* - - 
*' common hard, - ;■ • 

*' soft, inferior, . . . - 

Brickwork, pressed brick, 

** ordinary, - "* - 

Cement, hydraulic, ground, loose, American, Rosendale, 
", « " . , " " Louisville, 

«' " " " English, Portland, - 

Cherry, dry, 

Chestnut, dr}', - - - 

Coal, bituminous, solid, 

*' •' broken, loose, .... 

** ** heaped bushel, loose, - - 

Coke, loose, of good coal, ..... 

" " heaped bushel, --..-. 
Copper, cast, - - - ^ - 

«' rolled, ..^^5? • .... 

Earth, common loam, dry, loose, - . . . 
*' " " " moderately rammed, 

" as a soft flowing mud, ... 
^Ebony, dry, .-..>- 

IShn, dry, • ^ - -. • 

IFlint, - - * * * 

.(Glass, common window^ . & ^ 



iveragt 
height. 

"^ 93 

54 

68 

(80) 

38 

87 

604 

624 

160 

125 

100 

140 

112 

56 

60 

90 

42 

41 

84 

. 49 

(74) 

27 

^38] 

642 

648 

76 

95 

108 

76 

35 

162 

167 



347 
WEIGHT OF SUBSTANCE. 

(CONTINUED.) 



Average 

Names of Substances. . Wei^bt. 

Gneiss, common, • . - . • - • 168 

Gold, cast, pure, or 24 carat. . • ... • 1204 

" pure, hammered. . • - • •1217 

Granite. " - - . ■ 170 

Gravel, about the same as sand, which see. 

Hemlock, dry. - . - - - - - 25 

Hickory, dry, - - 53 

Hornblende, black, . 203 

Ice. ^ . 58.7 

Iron. cast. - - « 450 

_•* wrought, purest. 485 

*' '* average, • - - - - - • 480 

Ivory, -« - - 114 

Lead, 711 

^Lignum Vitoe, dry, r - 83 

Lirae, quick, ground, loose, or in small lumps, - ^ 53 

" " " " thoroughly shaken, - - 76 

'• " " " per struck bushel, - - (661 

Limestones and Marbles, - - ^ - - - 168 

" " ioose^ in irregular fragments, - 06 

Mahogany. Spanish, tiry, - - - - - '' 53 

Honduras, dry, • ... - . 35 

Maple, dry, ..-•.--- 49 
Marbles, see Limestones, 

Masonry, of granite or limestone, well dressed, - 165 

•• " mortar rubble, - 154 

" dry ♦• (well scabbled,) - . 138 

•• •• sandstone, well dressed, - . - - 144 

Mercury, at 22° Fahrenheit, 849 

Mica, 183 

Mortar, hardened, - - 103 

Mud, dry, close. 80 to 110 

♦' wet, fluid, maxinium, - • . - - 120 

Qdikj live, dry, , . - ^ - ^ - . 59 



348 

WEIGHT OF SUBSTANCES. 

(continued.) 

Names of Substancss. "Weight 

Lbs. 

Oak, white, dry, - * - ^ « * - 52 

*' other kinds,' - - . - * * - 32 to 45 

Petroleum, - - - - - «^ .'- - f55 

Fine, white, dry, -.-•--,- 25 

** yellow. Northern, ------ 34 

** " Southern, - - - - - * 45 

Platinum, . - - 1342 

Quartz, common, pure, ------ X65 

Rosin, ------.-- 69 

Salt, coarse, Syracuse, N. Y. - - - - - 45 

" Liverpool, fine, for table use, - - - - 49 

Sand, of pure quartz, dry, loose, - - - 00 to 106 

'* well shaken, - - - - - 99 to 117 

" perfectly wet, - - - - - 120 to 140 

Sandstones, fit for building, # ----- 151 

Shales, red jor black, - - - - - - - 162 

Silver, - - - - - - - - - ; 665 

Slate, 175 

Snow, freshly fallen, - - - - - 6 to 12 

•* moistened and. compacted by rain, - - 15 to 50 

Spruce, dry, - --. -, - - - - 25 

Steel. - . 4' . * - t - . - - - - 49a 

Sulphur, - - -• - -.- • 125 

Sycamore, dry, - - -- - -- -. 37 1 

Tar, - - - - - - - . - • - 62; 

Tm, cast, -- 459 : 

Turf or Peai, dry, unpressed, - - - - 20 to 30 

Walnut, black, dry, - 38 

Water, pure rain or distilled, at 60° Fahrenheit, - 62>^ 

*♦ sea, -.-.----64 

Wax, bees, 60.5 

Zmc or Spelter. 437' 

Green timbers usually weigh from one-fifth to one-half more : 
than dry. 



349' 
Round Cast Iron Columns. — Safe Load in Tons of 
2,000 poimds ; safety, 6. — These tables are based on 
columns made of the best iron, perfectly molded and 
with both ends turned. 

OntsldA Dianipter, i in. 



Oiiisid 


e Diameter. 3 in. 


J^in. 


?i in. 


1 in. 


44,070 


59,890 


71,190 


3»,H94 


53,535 


63,636 


.•{4,579 


46,992 


55.859 


.•{0,231 


41,083 


48,835 


26,2«S 


35,698 


42,433 


22,812 


31,001 


36,851 


19,844 


26,967 


32,056 


17,,S39 


23,564 


28,010 


15,147 


2(K694 


24,630 


l.S,402 


18,213 


21,650 


11,785 


16,123 


19,223 


10,469 


14,335 


17,097 


9,4 5;{ 


12,84 7 


15,271 


Ontsid< 


) Oianiete 


r, 5 In. 


J^in. 


% in. 


lin. 


- 79,100 


141,2.^0 


'113,000 


74,118 


132,353 


105,833 


68,99B 


123,207 


98,566 


63,886 


114,082 


91,266 


58,951 


105,270 


84,216 


54,261 


96,895 


7 7,516 


49,875 


89,062 


71,250 


45,826 


81,832 


65,466 


. 42,105 


75,187 


60,150 


38,710 


69,125 


55,300 


85,618 


63,603 


50,833 


32,830 


58,625 


46,900 


30,298 


54,103 


43,283 


28,003 


50,006 


40,005 


25,931 


46,306 


37,045 


24,056 


4^,1^57 


34.366 


Oatitd 


B Diamete 


r, 7 in. 


aiin. 


lin. 


1'4 in. 


166,110 


212,440 


255,380 


158,664 


202,917 


243.933 


151,086 


193,226 


232,282 


143,283 


183,375 


220,4 40 


135,769 


173,636 


208,783 


128,198 


163.954 


197,094 


120,936 


154,667 


185.930 


113,948 


145,730 


175,186 


107,824 


137,258 


165,002 


101,062 


129,250 


155,375 


95,123 


121.654 


14 6,24 4 


89,567 


114,548 


137,701 


84,275 


107,780 


129,565 


79,380 


101,520 


122.040 


74,798 


95,660 


114,995 


70,589 


90,27 7 


108,525 


664635 


85,220 


102,458 


62,930 


80.4 82 


96.750 



8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
5:0 



'/2 in^ 

61,020 
56,140 
51,246 
46,552 
41,868 
37,912 
33,885 
30,701 
27,476 
25,000 
22,464 
20,511 
18,557 



% irL 


1 in. 


85,880 


106,220 


79.202 


98,020 


72,124 


89,206 


65,968 


82,035 


58,912 


72,865 


53,303 


65,925 


4 7,690 


58,985 


42,681 


53,011 


3H,67l 


47,830 


34,7 94 


43,167 


31,616 


39,10* 


28,567 


35,504 


26,118 


32,304 



Outside DTameter, 6 in. 



Jiin. 



140,120 

132,782 

125,253 

117,676 

109,945 

103,021 

96,119 

89,612 

83,514 

7 7,810 

72,532 

67,633 

63,094 

58,962 

55.13 

51,584 

48,34 8 

45,365 



lin. 

17 7,410 

168,120 

158,587 

148,993 

139,205 

130.438 

121,700 

113,448 

105,739 

98,517 

91,835 

8,>,632 

7 9,886 

7 4,653 

69,803 

65,312 

61,215 

57,438 



l^ln._ I 

210,180 

199,174 

187,880 

176,514 

164,908 

154,532 

144,179 

134,403 

125,271 

1 I 6,7 1 5 

108,798 

101,449 

^94,64 2 

6^88.44 3 

82,697 

77,376 

72,523 

68,048 



UutRide Diameter, 8 !». 



?4 in. 


Itn. 


l>4io- 


193,230 


248,600 


299,450 


185,6 7 1 


238,876 


287,737 


17 7,94 2 


228.932 


2 75,7 59 


170,110 


218,856 


263,622 


162,279 


208,780 


251.485 


154,359 


198,638 


239.268 


146,700 


• 188,738 


227.343 


139,655 


179,674 


216.42;. 


132,552 


170,535 


205,4 17 


125,787 


161,832 


194,934 


119,323 


153,516 


184,917 


1 13,150 


145,574 


175,350 


107.302 


138,050 


166,48; 


101,796 


I3<K966 


157,754 


96,580 


124.256 


149,672 


91.656 


117,920 


14 2,040 


87.009 


111,942 


13 4. S3 9 


82,695 


106,392 


I2S.I., 1 



350 



ROUXD CAST IRON COLUMNS— (Continued). 



ji 


Ootslde DlafUeter, 15 in. 


B 


OaCBide Diameter, 16 lo. 


J 


Jin V^in. 


.;2in., 


VAUi. 


2 in. 


2)6 in. 


15 


496,^74! 718,793 


922.884 


16 


772.129 


993.648 1,198.139 


16 


.486,7271 703,972i 903,953 


17 


757.143 


974.7851.175,918 


17 


476,259 688.833 884.513 


18 


741.^5 


965.158 1,151,380 


IS 


466,654! 6:3,666; 864.910 


19 


726,521 


935,397 1,127,523 


19 


454,97S 


658,045^ 844.980 


20 


711.042 


915.312 1,103,348 


20 


444,242 


642.5251 825.050 


21 


695,394 


895,149 1.079,067 


21 


433,467 


626,940; 805.038 


22 


670.610 


674.750 1,054.574 


22 


422,736 


611,419, 785.108 


23 


664,031 


854,795 1,030,400 


23 


412,000 


595,898i 76i,178 


24 


648.452 


834.740 1,006.225 


24 


401,40o 


580.568 745.493 


25 


632,941 


814.773| 982.156 


25 


800,938 


565.429 726,054 


26 


617.567 


794.982' 958.299 


26 


880,551 


550.417 706.777 


27 


602,329 


775.367j 934.657 


27 


870.401 


535.7331 687,909 


28 


587,296 


756.016! 911.328 


28 


360.240; 521.220! 669,286 


29 


572.537 


737.017' 888.365 


29 


350,560 


507,035! 651.071 


30 


557,988 


718,2811 865,841 


ao 


840.93{ 


493.105: 633,183 


31 


54i.702 
5-^.694 


699.916! 843,681 


81 


830.92] 


4?9.492i 615,704 


32 


681.8661 822,34 5 


.32 


322.329J 46G.19S] 598,633 


33 

26 


515,960 


664,186^^ 800.033 




Outside DUmeter. 17 iiu 


ODlsideDiaiseter, 17 in. 




IHIn. 


2 in.' 


2Km. 


1J6 in. 
686.503 


2 in. 


2)6 in. . 


17 


825.352 


1,065.025 1,286,844 


885.856 1,070,358 


18 809,752 


1,045,798 1.263.612 


27 


671,018 


665,875'1.046,216 


aO 795,333 


1,026.198 1.240.039 


28 


655.758 


846.176 1.022,415 


>20 1779,994 


1.006,405 1.210,125 


29 


640,634 


825.667 


998,841 


21 '764,510 


986.515 1,101,982 


30 


625,661 


807,34 6 


975,496 


22 1748.952 


966.439 1.107.726 


31 


610.907 


788,807 


952,492 


23 1733,832 


946,270 1.143,355 


32 


596.4 55 


769.645 


929,944 


24 1717.618 


226,000 1.118.871 


33 


582.132 


744,267 


907,737 


25 1702,060 


005,981 1.094.615 


34 


566.206 


730,626 


882.798 



•liEW STEEL J?AILS USED AS LINTELS Gfi GIRDERS, 

'Safe load In tons ot 2000 Ibs.^ 



LeoBth f 2 i 3 


4 ! 6 


6 1 7 1 8 


\) 






62 lb. rail, per yard; 10.7 5| 7.00 


5.o0| 4.25 


3.50| 3. 1 2.75 


2.60 


60 lb. rail, ycr yard 12. | 8.00 


5 05j 4 75 


4.00: 3 50; 8. 


2.7a 


Detiectionin inches 0.04 5 0')0 


07 5 090 


125 170j0.226 


0800 



Length 



52 lb rail, per ya:d[ 2. 



10 I 11 ] 13~| 13 ] 14 I 15 I 16 I 



60 lb pall, per yard 2.40J 2.20 



l.so' 1 *^0| I 7o; 1.50! 1.40, 1 ::o, 



DetlectiotiiD incbesiO.<ii5/0 45o 



l.SOj 1 7 0j 1 60:'^.50. 
.8ai)0.i)3ai 



i36 0.6m0.7300 



351 
AREAS OF CIRCLES, 

Advancing by Eighths. 



.0 

.7854 
3.-141C 
7.068 
12.56 
19.63 

28.27 
38.48 
50.26 
68.61 
78.54 

95.03 
113.0 
132.7 
153.9 
176.7 

201.0 
226.9 
254.4 
283.5 
314.1 

346.3 

380.1 
415.4 
452.3 
490.8 

530.9 
572.3 

615.7 
660.5 
706.8 

754.8 
804.3 
8,')5.3 
907.9 
962.1 

; 1017.9 
' 1075.2 
I 1134.1 
I 1194.6 
I 1256. f^V 

I 1320.5 
! 1385.4 
I 1452. 2 
t 1520.5 
i 1590.4 



.0122 

.9940 

3.546 

7.669- 

13.36 

20.62 

29.46 
39.87 
51.84 
65.39 
80.51 

97.20 
115.4 
135.2 
156.6 
179.6 

204.2 
230 3 
258.0 
287.2 
318.1 

350.4 

384.4 
420.0 
457. 1 
495.7 

536.0 
577.8 
621.2 
666.2 
712.7 

760.9 
810.6 
861.8 
914.7 
969.0 

1025.0 
1082.5 
1141.6 
1202.3 
1264.5 

1328.3 
1393.7 
1460.7 
1629.2 
1599.3 



.0490 
1.23T 
3 . 976 
8.295 

14. J8 

21.64 

30.67 
41.28 
53.45 
67.20 
82.51 

99.40 

117.8 
137.8 
159.4 
182.6 

207.3 
23J.7 
261 5 
291.0 
322.0 

354.6 
388.8 
424.5 
461.8 
500.7 

541.1 
583.2 
626.7 
671.9 
718.6 

767.0 



921.3 
975.9 

1032.1 
1089.8 
1149.1 
1210.0 
1272.4 

1386.4 
1402.0 
1469.1 
1537.9 
1608.2 



.1104 

1.484 

4.4.30 

8.946 

15.03 

22.69 

31.91 
42. 71 
55.08 
69.02 
84 .54 

101 6 
120.2 
140.5 
162.2 
185.6 

210.5 
237.1 
265.1 
294.8 
326.0 

358.8 
393.2 
429.1 
466.6 
505.7 

546.8 
588.5 
632.3 
677.7 
724.6 

773.1 
823.2 
874.9 
928.1 
982.8 

1039.2 
1097.1 
1156.6 
1217.7 
1280.3 

1344.5 
1410.3 
1477.6 
1546.6 
1617.0 



.1963 

1.767 

4.908 

9.621 

15.90 

23.75 

33.18 
44.17 
56.74 
70.88 
86.59 

103.8 
122.7 
143.1 
165 1 
188.6 

213.8 
240.5 
268.8 
298.6 
330.0 

363.0 
397. 6 
433.7 
471.4 
510.7 

551.5 
598.9 
637.9 
683.4 
730.6 

779.3 
829.6 
881.4 
934.8 
989. 8 ♦ 

1046.3 
1104.5 
1164.2 
1225.4 
1288.2 

1352.7 
1418.6 
1486.2 
1555.3 
1626.0 



.3068 
2.073 
5.411 

10.32 

16.80 

24.85 

34.47 
45.66 
58.42 

72.75 
88.66 

106.1 
125.1 
145.8 



217.0 
243.9 
272:4 
302.4 
334.1 

367.2 

402.0 
438.3 
476.2 
515.7 

556.7 
599.3 
643.5 
689.2 
736.6 

785.5 
836.0 
888.0 
941.6 
996.8 

1053.5 
1111.8 
1171.7 
1283.2 
1296.2 

1360.8 
1427.0 
1494.7 
1564.0 
1684.9 



'H 



.441 
2.405 
5.939 
11.04 
17.72 
25.96 



47.17 
60. J3 
74.66 
^0.76 

108.4 
127.6 
148.4 
170.8 
194.8 

220.3 
247.4 
276.1 
306.3 
338.1 

371.5 
406.4 
443.0 
481.1 
520.7 



.% 



.6013 
2.7(il 
6.491- 
11.79 / 
13. Wi 
27.10' 

37.12 
48.70. 
61.86 i 

76 58 : 
92.8a i 

110.7 
130.1 
151.2 
173.7 
197.9 

223.6 
250.9 
279.8 
310.2 
342.2 

375.8 
410.9 
447.6 

485.9 
525.8 



562.0 


567.2 


604.8 


61U.2 


649.1 


654.8 


695.1 


700.9 


742.6 


748.6 


791.7 


798.0 


842.4 


848.8 


894.6 


901.3 


948.4 


955.3 


1003.8 


1010.8 


1060.7 
1119. y 


1068.0 


1126. 7 


1179.3 


1186.9 


1241.0 


1248-8 


1304.2 


1312.8 


1369.0 


1377.2 


1435.4 


1443.8 


1503-3' 


1511. 9> 


1572.8 


1581.6 


1643.9^^ 


1652.9^ 



352 
CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 

Advancing by Eighths. 



"L- 






CIRCUMFERENCES 








5 


' /b 


•H 


■^ 


■ H 


■H 


.5^ 


■H 


• % 


«E 


.0 


-39^7 


.7854 


1.178 


1.570 


1.963 


2.356 


2.748 


'I 


8.141 


3.584 


3.927 


4.319 


4.712 


5,105 


5.497 


5.890 


2 


6.283 


6.675 


7.068 


7.461 


7.854 


8.246 


8.639 


9.032 


8 


9.424 


9.817 


10.21 


10.60 


iO.99 


11.38 


11.78 


12.17 


4 


12.56 


12.95 


13.85 


13.74 


14.13 


14.52 


14.92 


15.31 


5 


15. TO 


16.10 


16.49 


16.88 


17.27 


17.67 


18.06 


18.45 


'6 


18.84 


19.24 


19.63 


20.02 


20.42 


20.81 


21.20 


21..'-.9 


7 


21.99 


22.38 


22.77 


23.16 


28.56 


23.95 


24..S4 


2^1.74 


8 


25.13 


25.52 


25.91 


26.31 


2b. 70 


27.09 


•.'7.48 


27. K8 


9 


28.27 


28.66 


29.05 


29.45 


5>9.84 


80.23 


;!0.63 


31.02 


10 


31.41 


81.80 


32.20 


32.59 


32.98 


33.37 '* 


..33.77 


34.16 


11 


84.55 


34.95 


35.84> 


85.^3 


86.12 


36.52 


36.91 


37.30. 


12 


37.69 


38.09 


33.48 


38.87 


39.27 


^9.66 


40.05 


40.44 


13 


40.84 


41.28 


41.62 


42.01 


42.41 


42.80 


43,19 


43.58 


14 


43.98 


44.87 


44.76 


45.16 


45.55 


45.94 


46.33 


46,73 


15 


47.12 


47.51 


47.90 


48.30 


48.69 


49.08 


49.48 


49.87. 


16 


50.26 


50.65 


51.05 


51.44 


51,83 


52.22 


52,62 


53.01 


17 


53.40 


53.79 


54.19 


54.58 


54.97 


55.37 


55,76 


56.15 


18 


56.54 


56.94 


57.38 


57.72 


58.11 


58.51 


58,90 


59.29 


19 


59.69 


60.08 


60.47 


60.86 


61.26 


61.65 


62.04 


62.43 


50 


62.83 


63.22 


63.61 


64.01 


64.40 


64.79 


65,18 


65,58^ 


21 


65.97 


66.36 


66'. 75 


67.15 


67.54 


67.93 


68,32 


68.72 


22 


69.11 


69.50 


69.90 


70.29 


70,68 


7'1.07, 


71.47 


71.86 


23 


72.25 


72.64 


73.04 


73.43 


73.82 


74.22 


74.61 


75.0l> 


24 


75.89 


75.79 


76.18 


76.57 


76.96 


77.36 


77.75 


78.14 


25 


78.54 


78.93 


79.32 


79.71 


80.10 


80.50 


80.89 


81.28 


26 


81.68 


82.07 


82.46 


82.85 


83.25 


83.64 • 


84.03 


84.43 


27 


84.82 


85.21 


85,60 


86.00 


86.39 


86.78 


87.17 


87,57 


28 


87.96 


88.35 


88.75 


89.14 


89.53 


89.92 


90.32 


90,71 


29 


91.10 


91.49 


91.89 


92,28 


92.67 


93.06 


93.46 


93.85 


80 


94.24 


94.64 


95.03 


95.42 


95.81 


96.21 


96.60 


96.99. 


31 


97.39 


97.78 


98.17 


98.57 


98.96 


99.35 


99.75 


100,14 


82 


100.53 


100.92 


101.32 


101.71 


102.10 


102.49 


102.89 


103.29 


83 


103.67 


104.07 


104.46 


104.85 


105.24 . 


105.64 


106.03 


106.42 


84 


106.81 


107.21 


107.60 


107.99 


108.39 


108.78 


109. 17 


109.56 


83 


109.96 


110.35 


110.74 


111.13 


111.53 


111.92 


112.31 


112.7V 


36 


113.10 


118.49 


113.88 


114.28 


114.67 


115,06 


115 45 


115.85 


87 


116.24 


116.63 


117.02 


117.42 


117.81 


118.20 


118.61 


118.99 


88 


119.38 


119.77 


120.17 


120.56 


120.95 


121.34 


121.74 


122.13 


39 


122.52 


122.92 


123.31 


123.70 


124.09 


124.49 


124.88 


125.27 


40 


125.66 


126.06 


126.45 


126.84 


127.24 


127.63 


128.02 


128.41 


41 


128.81 


129.20 


127.59 


129.98 


130.38 


130.77 


ISi.ie^'. 


S.55 


42 


131.<95 


132.84 


132.73 


133.13 


133.52 


133.91 


134.30 


1^4.70 


48 


135.09,. 
138. 23i * 


135.48 


135.87 


136.27 


136.66 


137.05 


137.45 


137.84 


44 


138.62 


139.02 


139.41 


139.80 


140.19 


140.59 


140.98 


45 


141.37 


141.76 


142.16 


142.55 


142.94 


143.34 


143.73 


144.12 



353 

Weight of Cast Iron Columns Per Lineal Foot 
Foot of Plain Shaft. 



THRKMESS OF METAL. 



^in. ?^in. J^in. ^In. %ln. %in. 1 in. l%m.V4in. VA\n. P^ln.l 2 in 



4.8 
6 5 



9.2 
10.4 



11.7 
12.9 



14.1 
15 3 



16 6 
17 



19 
20.2 



21 5 

22 7 



23 9 
25 2 



28 4 

27 6 



6.0 



7 4 



12 3 
14 



17,2 

19. a 



22 1 26 
24 5 29 



27 
29 5 



31 9 
34 4 



28 1' a 

29 91 39 3; 4>^ 



9 2 
12 9 



23.9 

27.6 



31 3 

35 



! 3 
i 1 42 3 



ll 46 



3! 53 4 
31 57 1 



41 7' 51 
44. 2i 54 

46 61 5"; 
49 Ij 60 

51 6 63 
64 81 66 

56 5 69 

58 .9 72. 

61 4 75 
63 8 79 



4| 60 
5| 64 4 



71 8 



75 5 

79 2 



90 2 
93 9 



I 3 82 

1.7 85 21101 2 



Tl 2 88 
76 1 94 



81 O'lOO 
86 9 J 06 



90 8:112 
95 7 118 



14 7 



19 6 
24 



29.5 
34 4 



39 3 
44 2 



49 1 

3 M 



61 58 9 
9 63 8 



78 5 
Si 5 



4 

Tl 93 3 



121 



21104 9 

3jll2 3|129 

5ill9 T J38 

6' 12": 147 

B:i;J4 411.55 

9il41 *- 164 



37.3 



42 8 
48,3 



53.9 
«>.4 



64 9 
70.4 



75 9 
«1 5 



87 
92 5 



OS 
103 5 



109 1 nn 

114 6! LZG 



108 
112 9 



117 81 
122 7! 



127 6 
132 5 



137 5 
147 3 



157 1 
166.9 



176 7 
186.5 



120 1: 131 
126 6 138 



131.21 144 

136 7 15<J 



142 2 156 

147 7i 162 



153 2 168 
164 3, 181 



175 3; 1V<3 
186 4; 206 



197 4! 217 
208 5| 230 



81 
88 4 



95 
10« 1 



110.5 
117. 8 



125 2 
132 5 



1.54:6 
162.0 



16H 4 
176 



184 1 

191 . 4 



198 8 
213 5 



238 3 
243 



141 Tl 1.-7 I 
150 3, 166 9 



1.58 9; 176 7 
16T 5| 180.5 



176 1! 196 3 
184 7; 20«i 2 



210 5 
219 1 



227 fi 
244 8 



2«J 
279 2 



296 4 
313 5 



2a5 6 
245 4 



2.V) 2 
274 ^1 



2TM 5 
314 ] 



3:« 8 
:i5;s 4 



Increase 


l.N WeIUBT fOrt 


'/ri IS Increase is Diameter. 


^\n. ^in. J^m 


ralD 


?4>a. 


h in. 


1 
I 111 |i.'iin. i;'.iin. 


l^in. I?4ln 2 in. 


•3 2 IS 2.5 


3 i 


3 7 


4 3 


4 9 5 5 1 6 1 


7 4 18 6 9.8 



354 

Weight of Square or Rectangular Cast Iron Col- 
umn Shafts Per Lineal Foot. 

Example : Column 6 X lO X i -r ic o . 6 X 
lo" = i6 ' X 2 = 32. Following out line on which 32 is 
found in left hand column to column headed i , we find 
the weight per foot to be 87.5 pounds, which, multiplied 
by 10' i' = S75 pounds. 





















■^ 


A 




M ETA L. 




< 


1 1 




2i 


lUi 


%" 


2i" 


%" 


1" 


1^" 1 1%" 


l%" 


l!i" 


2" 


12 


18.6 


21.1 23.3 


25.0' 26.4 27.3 


28.1 






14 


22.6 
26.4 


25.8' 28.7' 31.3' 33.4' 35.1 
30.5 34.2 37.0 10.4 43.^ 


87.5 
46.9 






16 


49.2 


50.0 


IS 


30.3 


35.2 39.7 43. «* 47.4' 50.S 


56.3 


60,2 


62.6 


20 


34.2 


39.8 45.1 50.0 54.5 58.6 


65.6 


71.1 


75.0 


22 


38.1 


44,5 50.6 56.3 61.5 66.4 


75.0 


82.0 


87.5 


24 


42.0; 49.2 od.l 62.5 6S.5 74.2 


84.4 


93.0 


100.0 


26 


45.9' 53. 9| 61.5 6S.S 75.6 S2.0 


93.8 


103.9 


112.5 


28 


49.S! 0S.6 67.0^ 75.0; S2.6 S9.S 


103.7 


114.8 


125.0 


30 


53. 7I 63.3 72.0! 81.8' 89.6 97.7 


112.5 


125.8 


187.5 


82 


57.6| 6S.0 77.9 87. 5 96.7 105.5 


121.9 


1S7.7 


150.0 


84 


6I.0 


72.7 83.4 93.8 103.7 113.3 


131.3 


147.7 


162.5 


36 


65.4 


77.3 SS. 9 100.0 110.7 121.1 


140.6 


158.6 


175.0 


88 


69.8;! S2.0 94.3 106.3,117.8 12s. 9 


150.0 


169.5 


187.5 


40 


73.2' S6. 7 99. S 112.5 124. S 136.7 


159.4 


180.5 


200.0 


42 


77.1 9L4 105.3 IIS.S 131. S 144.5 


168.8 


191.4 


212.5 


44 


81.0 96.1 IIO.S 125.0 13S.S 152.3 


178.1 


202.3 


225.0 


46 


64.9 lOO.S 116.2 13L3'l45.9 160.2 


187.5 


213.3 


287.0 


48 


8S.S 105.5 121.7 137.5|l52.9 16S.0 


196.9 


224.2 


260.0 


60 


92.s|ll0.2 127.2 143.s'l59.9 1 75.S 


206.3 


235.2 


262.5 


62 


96.7'll4.S 132.6 150.0 167.0 1S3.6 


215.6 


246.3 


275.0 


64 


100.6,119.5 13«.l 156.3 


174.0 141.4 


225.0 


257.0 


287.6 


66 


104.5'l24.2 143.6 162.5 


ISl.O 199.2 


234.4 


268.0 


300.0 


68 


108.4128.9 149.0 16S.S 


ISS.l 207.0 


243.8 


278.9 


312.6 


60 


112.3;133.6 154.5 175.0 


195.1214.9 


253.2 


289.8 


325.0 


^62 


116.2|l3S.3 160.01S1.8 


202.1 222.7 


26 2.5 


300.8 


337.6 


64 


120.l'l43.0 165.4 is;. .5 


209.2 230.5 


271.9 


811.7 


350.0 


66 


124.o'l47.7 170.9 193.S 216.2 23S.3 


281.3 


322.7 


362.5 


68 


127.9'lo2.3176.4 200.0 223.2 246.1 


200.6 


336.6 


37 5.0 


70 


131.8 157.0 ISl.S 20^3 230.3 253.9 


300.0 


844.5 


887.6 


72 


135.7,161.7 1S7.7 212.5 237.3 261.7 


309.4 


855.5 


400.0 


74 


139.5 166.4 192.S 21S.S 244.3 269.5 


318.8 


366.4 


412.6 


76 


143.5171.1 198.3 225.0 251.3 277.3 


328.1 


877.3 


425.0 


78 


147.4'i;5.8 203.7 231.3 25S.4 2S5.2 


337.5 


383.3 


437.5 


80 


15J.3|lS0.5;209.5 237.5 265.4 293.0 


340.9 


399.2 


450.0 



355 





CUBIC MEASURE. 




jDChC3. Feet. Yard. 

1."== -.0005788 = .000002144 = 
^728. 1. .03704 
46656. 27. 1. 


C\ib\c Metres 

.000016386 

.028315 

764513 



A CUBIC FOOT IS EQUAL TO 



1728 cubic inches 

037037 cubic yard 

803564 U 8 struck bushel 
of 2150 42 cub. id 
U S pecks 
U. S liquid gallons 
of 231 cub in. 
U. S dry gallons of 
268 8025 cub in 



S 21426 

7.48052 

0.42851 



29 92208 U. S. liquid quarts.^ 
25.71405 U S dry quarts 
59 84416 U S liquid pints. I 
51,42809 U 8, dry pints. 
239.37662 U. 8. gills 

.26667 flour barrel of 3 

struck bushels 
.23748 US. liquid barrel 
of 31 >^ gallons,. 



A cubic inch of water at 62^ Fahr weighs 252.458 grains. 
A cubic foot of water ai 62 Fahr weighs 1002.7 ounces. 
A ctibicyard of water at 6iJ' Fahr. weighs 1692. pounds 



FRECNH CUBIC OR SOLID MEASURE. 



Centilitre , j 
Decilitre , . . j 
Litre j 

Decalitre , , ] 

Hectolitre ^ ] 

Kilolitre or 3 
Cubic Metre / 

MyrioWtre ] 



Dry .. 

Liquid 

Dry . . 

Liquid 

Dry .. 

Liquid 

Dry .. 

Liquid 

Dry . 

Liquid 

Dry 

Liquid 

Dry . 

Liquid 



Pint Quart. Buah. 



,0181 
.0211 
.1816 
.2113 
1.816 
2.113 

2i '13 

211 3 






0908 
1056 
.908 

1.056 
9 08 

10 56 

90,8 
105 6 

1056 5 

10565. 



2837 



2,837 

28'.37 
'283,7 



[ 61016 
I 6.1016 
[ 61.016 
610.16 
[ 6101 6 
[ 61016. 

( 



.0363 

.8531 
3.53J 
35.31 
353.1 



AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. 

The standard avoirdupois pound is the weight of 27.7015 
cubic inches of distilled water, weighed in the air, at 39.83- 
degrees Fahr., barometer at thirty inches. 



Ooncea. Poands. 

U ""==' .0635 


Quarters. 


Cwta. 


Tod. 


= .00223 


=^ .000558 


='.00002?* 


Iff. 1. 


- .0357 


.008^3 


.000447 


448L 28. 


1. 


.35^ 


.0125 ' 


1792: 112. 


4. 


1, 


,M 


35840; 2240. 


80. 


20, 


h 



A drachm = 27.343 grains^ 

A stone = 14 pounds^ 

A quintal = 100 kilogrammeiSv 

7000 grains ' = 1 avoir, .pound = i. 21 528 troy *' pounds^ 
5760 grains ,= 1 troy pound = .82285 avoiiv pound. 

Kilos p. sq. centim. x 14.22 = Pounds p. sq. inch. 
Pounds p. sq. inch x .0703 = Kilos p. sq. centiia*'. 



fjCench weights. 

EQUIVALENT>TO AV^OI RDUPOTSs, 



'Milligramme 

Centigramme 

Decig7-amme ._ 

Gramme ... 

Decagramme . . ... 

Hectogramme 

Kilogramme ..., . 
Myriogramme ... 

Quintal 

Millier or Tome. . 



.015433 
154331 
1.54.331 
15.4831 
■ 154.331 
1543.31 
15433.1 



.<^^352 
.003527 
.035275 
352758 
3.52758 
35.2758 
352.758 
3527 58 
35275.8 



.000022'. 
.000220. 
.002204 
;. 022047 
/. 220473 
2.20473 
22.0473 
220.473 
2204^73 



357 





SQUARE MEASURE. 


Inches 


Feet. Yi\rcJ Perches. Acre. 


1. 


.00694 tr 000772 --- .0000255 rr .00000015^ 


144. 


1. .111 .00367 .000023 


1296. 


9. 1. .0331 .0002060 


39204. 


272i. 30i 1. .00625 


6272640. 


43560. 4840. 160. 1 




100 square feet = 1 square. 




10 square chains - I acre. 




1 chain wide - 8 acres per mile. 




1 hectare - 2.471143 acres. 




[ =z 27.878.400 square feet. 




1 square mile -j = 3.097.600 square yard.s^ 




( = 640 acres./ 


Acres 


y 0015625 = square milet 


Square yard x 000000323= square miles- 


Acres 


X 4840= square yJirds 


Square yards X 0002066 = acres. 



A section of land is 1 mile square, and contains 640 acres7 
A square acre is 208 71 ft at each side; or, 1 20 x 198 ft.^ 
A .square ^ acre is 147 58 ft at each side. or. HO x 198 ft J 
A square i acre is 104.855 ft. at each side. or. 55 x 198 ft. 

A circular acre Ls 235 504 ft tn diameter. 

A circular ^ acre is 166 527 ft. in diameter. 

A circular i acre is 117.752 ft m diameter 



FRENCH SQUARE MEASURE. 



Square 


Square Inctiea 


Square Feei 


Square Vards. 


Millimetre. 


00154 


0000107 


000001 


Centimetre 


.15498 


.0010763 


.000119 


Decimetre 


15 498 


107630O 


011956 


Mci cr Ccn 


1549 8 


10 76305 


1 19589 


Decametre 


154988 


1076 305 


119.589 


Hectare . 




107630 53 
10763058 


1195S 95 


Kilometre . 


.38607 amis 


1195895. 


Myriamei. 


38.007 




... . . .^T; . .^ 



358 



SURVEYING MEASqRm 









(LINEAL.) 






(Inchct. 




Feet. 


Yards. 


Chanu. 


Mfle.^ ^ 


1. 


^ . 


088S 


^ .0278 = 


.00126 


== .000015S 


12. 


1. 




.333 


.01515 


.000i89r^ 


30. 


3. 




1. 


.04545 


:000568^ 


792. 


66. 




22. 


1. 


4 .0125' 


63360. 


5280. 




1760.> 


80. 


.1'. 



One knot or geographical mile = 6086.07 feet = l^At 
, COetres = 1.1526 statute mile. 

One admiralty knot = 1.1515 statute miles = 6080 feeC^ 



LONG 


MEASURE. 




mSies, _ feet. Yards. 


Poles. Furl, 


Mie> -, 


1 1. ^, .083 = .02778 


= .005 = .000126 


^ .0000158> 


12. 1. .333- 


.0606 .00151 


.0001894 


36. 3. 1. 


.183 .00454^ 


.000568^ 


198; !6i. 5i. 


1. .025 


.003125 


^7920. 660. 220. 


40. ^ 1. 


.1^^ 


,^3360. 5280. 1760. 


820. 8. 


1- 


A palm = 8 inches. A hand = 4 inches. 




; A span — 9 inches. A cable's length - 120 fatHomsj^ 



-FRENCH LONG MEASURE. 



ll„ — ^. 


Inches. 


Feet. 


Yards. 


MHee. 


'Millimetre 


.03937 
.39368 
3.9368 
39.368 
393.68 


.0083 
.0328 
.3280 
3.2807 
32.807 
328 07 
3280.7 
32807. 






Centimetre 






Decimetre 

Metre _ 


.10936 
1.09357 
10.9357 
109 357 
1093 57 
10935.7 




Decametre 

Hectometre.... 
Kilometre 


"062134 
621346 


Myriametre 





6. 2^3466^ 



359 
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 



ULTIMATE RESISTANCE TO TENSION 

IN LBS. PER SQUAJIE INCH. 

METALS. 

Brass, cast, - - 18000 

wire. - - - - - - . 49000' 

Bronze or ^un metal, -.--.. 36000' 

Copper, cast. - ^ 19000 

sheet, - 30000 

bolts. 36000 

wire. • - - - - 60000 

Iron. cast. 1S400 to 29000, - 16500 

" wrought, round or square bars of 1 to 2 inch 

diameter, double refined, • 50000 to 54000' 

*• wrought, specimens ^ inch square, rut from large 

bars of double refined iron, - 50000 to 53000 
wrought, double refined, in large bars of about 

7 square inches section, - - 46000 to 47000 

wrought, plates, angles and other shapes. 48000 to 51000 

plates over 36'' wide. 48000 to 60000 

Wrought iron, suitable for rhe tension members of bridges.' 
should be double refined, and show a permanent elongation of 
20 per cent m ft" . when broken in small specimens, and a re- ■ 
duction oi area of 26 per cent at point of fracture 

The modulus of elasticity of Union Iron Mills' double refined' 
bar .ron .s 25000000 tu 26000000. from tests made on firvshed) | 
eyebars 

Iron. wire. 70000 to lOOOOO- 

wire-ropes. .... - 90000. 

Lead, sheet, -..----. 3300 

Steel, 65000 to 120000 

Tin, cast, 4000" 

Zinc, 7000 to 8000' 



360 

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

(CONTINUED.) 



TllvrBER; SEASONED, an^d OTHER ORGANIC FIBER. 

Ash, EDgHsh, - 17000 

« American, - - - - , - 11000 to 14000 
Beech, t "* ' - - - - - 15000 to 18000 
Box, - - - . 20000 

Cedar of Lebanon, - • . - - - - - 11400 
« American, red, - - ' -' - , - - 10300 

Fir or Spruce, 10000 to 13600 

Hempen Ropes, ----- 12000 to 16000 

Hickory, American, _ . - - 12800 to 18000 

Mahogany, 8000 to 21800 

Oak, American, white,> - - - - « - - 18000 

'« European, - - - - ~ 10000 to 19800 

line, American, white, red and pitch, Memel, Riga, - 10000 

« " long leaf yellow, - 12600 to 19200 

Poplar, - - - - - - - - - . 7000 

Silk fiber, - 52000 

Walnut, black, - . - . . . . 16000 

STONE, NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL. 

Brick and Cement, - 280 to 300 

Glass, - - '' - - - - - - - 9400 

Slate, 9600 to 12800 

Mortar, ordinary, - . - - - - - 60 



f ULTIMATE RESISTANCE TO COMPRESSION. 



METALS. 

Brass, cast, - - - - - - - - 10300 

(^Iron, « - - - - - - 82000 to 145000 

♦* wrought, **<- ... - 36000 to 40000 



36i 

STRENGTH OF MATERIAMS. 

(continued.) 

TIMBER. SEASONED. COMPRESSED IN TTIE 

DIRECTION OF THE GRAIN Average. 

Ar.h, American. . - ^. 4400 to 5800 

Beech, '• '. - T -^.•*' . * . 5800 lo 6900 

Box. - '\ • . •'.•/- • - 10300 

Cedar of Lebanon. . . - "Jfc. • ~ fl ^ 4, 5900 
American, red. . • ^ ^' -^ ' jj^ ' ^ • 6000 

Deal, red, • .- - ^'. .^'^'- V 6500 

Fir or Spruce, v^- . . , . 5100 to 6800 
Oak. American, white. \ . • - 7200 to 9100 

" British, , -"^ ■ ' . ^ ^* ^ lOOOO, 

" Dantzig. ' "". ^ 7700 

Pine. American, white. .... 5000 ^^ 5600 

" " long leaf )^•Hn^r. 8000 

Spruce or Fir. . .^^ • 't, ' 5800 to 6900, 

Walr^ur, blacV, *. - '. . . - . 7500 

... >^ 

STONE. NATURAL OR ARTIFICIAL, 

F.ricU. weak. . - , - .' ^ . 550 to 800 

•■ .trong/^ .^^.•%\My- .|f.%. UOO 

•' fire. . . ■^«' . v^^ J .ts" . - 1700 

Brickwork, ordinary, in cement. - *^ - ;^ • 300 w 450 

bc^t. ^. ... - . - 1000 

Chalk. ^ . --^^ .'*■ . - . . 330 ! 

Granite. .' 5500 ro 11000 

Limestone. ...... 4000 to 11000 

Sandstone, ordinary. .... 4000 

ULTIMATE RESISTANCE TO SHEARING. 

METALS. 

Iron, cast. . . . . . • 27700 

" •^vrought, aloni' ilie fil)ei » - 4500O 

'-> .♦ 

TIMBER. ALONG THE GRAIN 

Whue Pine, Spruce. Mcmlock, ^.. . 500 to 800 

Yellow Pme. long \tui. .< .''|:^' .-■::i:'\1-*".- 630 to 900 

■ Oak. European. ^ . j^. t^^^f?*^ #:^^^' . . 2300 

Ash. American. "\L^- • ' • • '. - 2000 



3^2 

Table of Safety Load of Cast Iron Columns— Factor of Safety 10. 

This factor of safety of lo has been adopted to allow for imper- 
fections in casting; such as air-holes, unequal thickness of metal, 
etc., devietion of pressure from axis of columns, and the effect of 
latenal forces accidentally applied. Where these risks do not 
occur, a factor of 6 may be taken for safe load. Ends of columns 
should always be turned true. 



1 •q4Su9i .;o 300J 
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TABLE OF SAFETY LOAD OF CAST IRON 
COLUMNS. 

(continued.) 



aad 9uran[oo 


1 

78.40 1 

86.88 ! 

94.9i| 
102.77 1 
110.26; 
117.47 
124.36 1 


78.28 
88.23 i 
97.87 ; 
107.23 
116.25 1 
124.99 ; 
141.52 


98.08 
108.89 
119.46 I 
129.73 1 
139.68 1 
168.68 1 
176.44 i 


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3^4 



TABLE OF SAFETY LOAD OF CAST IRON 
COLUMNS. 

(CONTINUED.) 



^ ^^"^ — . 

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Crushing and Tensile Strength, in lbs., per square Inch of Natural 
and Artificial Stones- 



DKSCRTPTIOS. 



Weight 

per 
Cublcft 

m lbs 



Crushing Force. 

Lbs. per Square 

Inch. 



Aberdeen Blue Granite 

Quincy Granite 

' Freestone, Belleville 

; Freestone, Caen , . . . . 

Freestone, Connecticut 

Sandstone, Acqula Cree k, used for Capitol Wash- 

I Ington 

■ Limestone, Magneslan. Grafton, 111 - . 

Marble, Hastings, N. y .. 

"Marble, Italian 

Marble, Stockbrldge, City Hall, N. Y . . 

Marble, Statuary 

Marble, Veined 

Slate 

Brick, Red , 

Brick, Pale Ked 

Brick, Common 

Brick, Machine Pressed 

Brick, Stock 

Brick-work, set In Cement, bricks not very hard 

Brick, Ma8on»T. Common 

Cement, Portland 

Cement, Portland, Cement 1, Sand 1 

Cement, Roman 

Mortar 

Crown Glass 



164 
166 



185.5 
130.3 



Portland Cement 

I Portland Cement, with Sand . 
I Glass, Plate 

Mortar : 

I Plaster of Paris 

j Slate '--.--: 



8,400 to 10,914 ' 
15,300 
3,. 522 
1,088 
3,319 

5,340 
17.000 
18,941 
12,624 
10,382 
8.216 
9,681 
9,300 
808 
562 
_ 800 to i,000 
6,222 to 14.2te 
2,177 
521 
500 to 800) 
1,000 to 8,300 
1,280 
842 
120 to 240 
81,000 

TBN8ION. 

4^7 to 711 

92 to 284 

9.420 

50 

72 

11,000 



Capacity of Cylindrical Cisterns.' 



FOB KACB FOOT OF DBPTH, 



Diameter 






Diameter 






t In Feet. 


Gallons. 


Pounds. 


In feet. 


Gallons. 


Pounds 


2.0 


23.5 


196 


9.0 


475.9 


3,96» 


2.5 


36.7 


806 


9.5 


580.2 


4,42Ii 


8.0 


52.9 


441 


10.0 


587.5 


4,899< 


3.5 


72.0 


600 


11.0 


710.9 


5.928 


4.0 


94.0 


784 


12.0 


846.0 


7,0.'?i 


4.5 


119.0 


992 


13.0 


992.9 


- 8,28a 


5.0 


146.9 


1,225 


14.0 


1.151.5 


9.602 


5.5 


177.7 


1,482 


15.0 


. 1.821.9 


ll.02» 


6.0 


211.5 


1,764 


20.0 


2.850. 1 


19^596 


6.5 


248.2 


2 070 


25.0 


8.672.0 


80,620 


7.0 


287.9 


2.401 


30.0 


6,287.7 


44.099 


7.5 


S30.5 


2.756 


85.0 


7.197.1 


60,016 


8.0 


376.0 


3.135 


40.0 


9.400.3 


78,sas 


8.5 


424.5 


., 3,540 










.-.66 



PROPERTIES OF TIMBER. 



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3^ 

SQUARE CAST IRON COLUMNS. 

Safe Load in Pounds. Safety 6. 

Both Ends Turned. 





\ Ontside^lze Column, 8x8. 


.a 


Outside Size Column, 10x10. 


^ - 


V ' -J 


1 in. 


13^ in. 


%m. 


lin. 


\\f2 in 


» 8- 


266^485 


328,902 


458,113 


10 


325,965 


422,874 


599,071 


^9 


247,656 


318,822 


444,073 


11 


318,015 


412,560 


684,460 


10 


239,457 


308,266 


429,370 


12 


309,751 


401,839 


669,272 1 


II 


231,786 


298,430 


416,670 


13 


301,232 


390,787 


553,615 


222,400 


286,308 


898,787 


14 


292,540 


379,512 


537,662 ! 


18 


213,752 


276,176 


383,280 


15 


283,752 


368.111 


521,790 


14 


204,896 


263,774 


267,399 


16 


274,925 


356,659 


505,267 , 


15 


196,642 


253,153 


252,606 


17 


266,109 


345,229 


489,075 , 


ie< 


188,268 


242,368 


337,584 


18 


257,362 


333,875 


472,989 


17 ' 


180,126 


231,887 


322,986 


19 


248^,709 


322,650 


457,087 ! 


18 


172,220 


221,709 


808,810 


20 


240,204 


311.616 


441,456] 


19 


164,589 


211,884 


295,125 


21 


231,87 3 


300,809 


426,146 1 


20 


157,242 


202,426 


281,950 


22 


223,720 


29th232 


411,162 j 


21 


160,226 


193,354 


269,314 


23 


215,881 


280,062 


396,754 : 


- 22- 


143,462 


184,674 


257,224 


24 


208,083 


269,946 


882,423 


23 


137,014 


176,376 


245,662 


25 


200,619 


260,263 


368,704^ 


24 


130,881 


168,490 


234,682 


26 


193,398 


250,895 


355,434 


£6 


126,349 


160,809 


223,985 


27 
21 


186,411 


241,830 


342,592 




OatRide Size Column, 12x12. 


Outside SlzeCo]um 


B, 12x12. 




l.in. 


1J6 in. 


2 in. 


1 m. 


VAin, 


2ia. 


12 


616,846 


7 40,029 


939,720 


414,986 


594,184 


754,520 


13 


606,383 


7 25,048 


920,696 


22 


403,458 


577,678 


733,560 


14 


495,550 


709,537 


901,000 


23 


392,093 


561,406 


712,896 


15 


484,418 


693,598 


880,765 


24 


380,864 


545,328 


692,480 


46 


473,057 


67 7,332 


860,104 


25 


369,829 


529,527 


672.416 


17 


461,579 


660,838 


839,160 


26 


359,005; 514.030 


'652,736 


18 


449,913 


644,194 


818,024 


27 


348,401 1 498,847 


633,466 


10 


438,253 


627,499 


796,824 


28 


337.7311 483.569 


614,056 , 


i^- 


426,593 


610,804 775,624 


29 


329,941 469.552 


696.2.>6 

— — -J 



COST OF LIVING IN CHINA. 
Land in China is divided into more holdings than any 
other land in the world. It takes but a very small piece of 
land to support a Chinese family. The Chinese are the 
closest and most thorough cultivators in the world. Field 
hands in China are paid $12 per annum. The food is 
cooked by the employer. With his food he is furnished 
straw, shoes and free shaving — the last a matter which a 
Chinaman never neglects for any great length of time where 
it is possible to secure the luxury. It costs about $4 a year 
to clothe a Chinaman. Much of the land in China is divided 
Up into gardens of areas as small as one-sixth of an acre. 



368 
NOTES ON HOT WATER SYSTEMS. 

Let your " risers " not be less than iX"^ ^oi* smaller pipes 
soon become coated, if the water used contains lime or other 
matters in solution or suspension. 

Galvanized pipe is best; it does not become rusty and dis- 
color the water. 

In ordinary pipe be sure to get " galvanized steam," and 
not " galvanized gas. " 

Let your draw-off services be for bath i'', to lavatories 
i", for hot water^''. Do not make the " draw- offs" too 
small, it takes too long to drain a pipe of cold water. 

The larger the pipes the freer the circulation, and, if you 
have hard water, they will remain in good order longer. 

Be sure that all joints are secure and free from leaks, and 
always look through a pipe before fitting it in place, to see 
that there is no dirt or impediment to the flow of water 
through it. 

Avoid the use of elbows in circulating pipes, use only 
bends; if you cannot avoid using an elbow, see that it is a 
round one. 

TO SOLDER ALUMINUM. 

M. Bourbouze has formed an alloy of 45 parts of tin and 
55 parts of aluminum, which answers for soldering aluminum. 
This alloy possesses almost the same lightness as the pure 
aluminum, and can be easily soldered. M. Bourbouze has 
invented another containing only ten per cent, of tin. This 
second alloy, which can replace aluminum in all its applica- 
tions, can be soldered to tin, while it preserves all the prin- 
cipal qualities of the pure metal. 

A new and curious alloy is produced by placing in a clean 
crucible an ounce of copper and an ounce of antimony, and 
fusing them by a strong heat. The compound will be hard, 
and of a beautiful violet hue. This alloy has not yet been 
applied to any usefuWpurpose, but its excellent qualities, 
independent of its color, entitle it to consideration. 

A CHEAP FILTER. 

A cheap filter which any tinner can make is 12x6 inches in 
size, and 8 inches high. The water flows in near the top, and 
on the top is a door through which to get into it to clean it. 
The outlet pipe at the bottom projects two inches up on the 
inside to hold the dirt back. A large sponge is placed inside, 
which forms the filtering medium, which, of course, can be 
cleaned as often as desired. 



3t^9 

COMPOSITION OF BABBITT METAL. 

Genuine Babbitt metal, according to the formula of the 
inventor, is 9 of tin, i of copper. Antimony has been added 
since, so that the proportions by hundreds will stand So tin, 
5 copper, 15 antimony. For high speeds the metals should 
be cooler, giving a larger proportion of tin ; for weight the 
metal should be harder, giving a larger proportion of 
antimony. 

THE HEATING SURFACE OF A STEAM RADIA- 
TOR. 

For instance, the radiator contains 300 feet of one-inch 
pipe; what will be its heating surface in square feet? A. 
300 feet =3,600 inches. The outside circumference of one- 
inch piper= 4 inches. And 3,600 X 4 = 14,400 square inches 
of heating surface . Lastly, ^ 

14,400 

= 100 

144 
square feet of heating surface. The way you have calculated 
the heating surface is not correct, because you did not multi- 
ply the length of the pipe by the circumference. 

A CHIMNEY THAT WILL DRAW. 

To build a chimney that will draw forever, and not fill up 
with soot, you must build it large enough, sixteen inches 
square; use good brick, and clay instead of lime up to the 
comb; plaster it inside with clay mixed with salt ; for chimney 
tops use the very best of brick, wet them and lay them in 
cement mortar. The chimney should not be built tight to 
beams and rafters; there is where the cracks in your chimney 
comes, and where most of the fires originate, as the chimney 
sometimes get red hot. A chimney built from the cellar up 
is better and less dangerous than one hung on the wall. 

ANCIENT USE OF LEAD. 

The ancients, like the moderns, used lead to fasten iron 
into stone, to give a glaze to pottery, and as a help to the 
manufacture of glass. Very singular were the " imprecation 
tablets, surreptitiously deposited in tombs, and sometimes 
even in the coffin of the deceased, that a curse might follow 
him to the other world," which seem " to have been more 
frequently deposited by women than by men." Vitruvius 
describes elaborately a vast aqueduct, the lead in which 



370 

would cost to-day two millions. The leaden bullets of the 
ancient slingers often bore an inscription in relief, such as 
" Appear," " Show yourself,"/' Desist," " Take this," " Strike 
Rome. " The Greeks were especially fond of bullets \\dth 
such mottoes, and they have been found upon Marathon and 
many other famous fields. 

A RUSSIAN WELDING PROCESS. 

The process of welding, invented by Mr. Be Benardox, of 
Russia, is now applied industrially by the Society for the 
Electrical Working of Metals. The pieces to be welded are 
placed upon a cast-iron plate supported by an insulated table, 
and comiected ■s\ith the negative pole of a source of electricity. 
The positive pole communicates with an electric carbon in- 
serted in an insulating handle. On dravring the point of the 
carbon along the edges of the metal to be welded, the oper- 
ator closes the circuit. He has then merely to raise the point 
shghtly to produce a voltaic arc, whose high temperature 
melts the two pieces of metal and causes them to unite. The 
intensity of the current naturally varies with the work to be 
done. For regulating it, a battery of accumulators is used, 
and the number of the latter is increased or diminished as 
need be. This process of welding is largely employed in the 
manufacture of metallic tanks and reservoirs. 

COLD SOLDER. 

La Metallurgie gives the following receipt for cold solder: 
Precipitate copper in a state of fine division from a solution 
of sulphate of copper by the aid of metallic zinc. Twenty 
or thirty parts of the copper are mixed in a mortar with con- 
centrated sulphuric acid, to which is afterward added seventy 
parts of mercury, and the whole triturated with the pestle. 
The amalgam produced is copiously washed with water to re- 
move the sulphuric acid, and is then left for twelve hours. 
When it is required for soldering, it is warmed until it is 
about the consistency of wax, and in this state it is applied 
to the joint, to which it adheres on cooling. 

TO TIN MALLEABLE IRON. 

W. M. writes : I tin malleable iron, which comes from the 
bath nice and bright, but although I keep it covered, after a 
few days it gets red, copper colored in spots, and this color 
gradually spreads all over the work. Can you teU me the 
cause? A. — The red color is probably derived from oxida- 



371 

tion of the iron by the acid left in the pores of the iron. 
The acid rusts the iron and oozes out through the pores of 
the tin by the pressure due to increase of bulk by the action 
of the acid upon the iron ; possibly also moisture may be 
absorbed by the acid through the tin, which is porous. 
Rinse the work immediately after tinning in boiling water, 
holding 2 oz. sal soda to the gallon in solution. 

OLD TINS NO LONGER USELESS. 

A number of people recently gathered at the Columbia 
rolling mill, Fourteenth street and Jersey avenue, Jersey City, 
at the formal opening of the mill. The industry is a novel 
one, being the manufacture of taggers' iron from old tin cans, 
and other waste sheet metal. This iron has heretofore been 
manufactured almost exclusively in Europe, and the Columbia 
Rolling Mill Company is the only American company which 
turns out the product in large quantities. ^The process is 
simple. The tin cans are first heated in an oven raised to a 
temperature of about i, 000°, which melts off the tin and lead. 
The sheet iron which remains is passed first under rubber- 
coated rollers, and then chilled iron rollers, which leaves the 
sheet smooth and flat. After annealing and trimming, they 
are ready for shipment. The tin and lead which is melted 
from the cans is run into bars, and is also placed upon the 
market. All the raw material used is waste, but the sheet 
iron turned out is said to be of good quality. It is used for 
buttons, tags, and objects of a like nature. The material used 
costing little, and the demand for taggers' iron being consider- 
able, it is thought ihat this is a good opportunity to build up 
another American imiustry. 

LEAD ON ROOFS AND IN SINKS. 

Tenacity is very slight in some of the metals. An in- 
stance may be seen where roofs are covered with lead. The 
heat of the sun will expand them, and, of course, it is easier 
for the sheets to expand down-hill than up; then, when they 
get cold, their own weight will be too great for them, and 
they will sooner stretch than creep back up hill; so, in fact, 
unless properly laid, the lead roof will to some extent crawl 
off its frame-work. The same thing will be seen in kitchen 
sinks of lead, where very hot water is run into them. The 
lining gets wrinkled, because, after buckling by reason of the 
expansion, it will sooner pull thinner than come back to the 
ordinary position and condition of surface. 



372 

A NEW PROCESS FOR COATING IRON WITH 
LEAD. 

Mr. R. N. P. Richardson, of Pittsburgh, has invented a 
new process for coating iron or any metallic surface with 
lead. The following description is given of the process : 
The pure lead in pig form is first put into the melting pot and 
brought to a standing temperature of high degree. The 
various solutions and mixtures are then heated, tested and the 
machinery started. The sheets, after being pickled, are put 
into a washing vat, as is usual in cleaning the surface of iron 
in the tin-plating process. Afterward the sheets are immersed 
in pure water to prevent oxidation by contact with the atmos- 
phere, until they are placed in the solution vat containing 
various chemicals in dilute hydrochloric acid. The sheets are 
then passed through the molten lead, and, after being passed 
through the first time, come out with a clean, bright, even and 
pure coating of lead. Mr. Richardson states that, while 
there is a similarity in all processes of coating metals, whether 
done by immersion of the sheets by a direct process in the 
molten metal, or by electric deposition of the metal from 
some of its salts, the whole secret of his process, after pick- 
ling and washing of the sheet, is simply in the solution to 
which the sheet is subjected before its immersion in the molten 
lead. The solution also forms, the flux for the sheet, bone 
ash mixed with the charcoal being used to prevent the oxida- 
tion of the metal. 

NICKEL PLATING. 

The following solution for electro-||ating with nickel is 
used by several firms in Hainault : 500 grms. of nickel sul- 
phate, 365 grms. of neutral ammonium tartrate, 2.5 grms. of 
tannin dissolved in ether, and 10 liters of water. One and 
one-half liters of water are first added, and the mixture 
boiled for fifteen minutes. The remainder of the water is 
then added, and the whole filtered. The Electrician says : 
" Solution yields an even white deposit, which is not brittle, 
and th^ cost of which is hardly more than that of electro- 
plating with copper. " 

Nickel plating is now effected at several works in Belgium 
with the following bath : Sulphate of nickel, i kilog. =2.2 
lbs.; tartrate of ammonia, 0.725 kilog.; tannic acid with 
ether, 0.005 kilog.; water, 20 liters =4.4 gallons. With 
this formula a thick coat is deposited on all metals in a short 
space of time, and by a weak current. 



ENDLESS TIN PLATES. 

A patent has been recently granted for a novel process of 
manufacturing continuous tin plates. The plates are made 
of steel, and the process consists of producing a sheet of 
steel of any continuous length and of required width, by 
first rolling the metal hot and afterward rolling it cold, 
until a proper thickness and perfectly smooth surface is 
obtained. Next, the surface of the sheet is scoured, and 
then it is afterward passed through a bath of molten tin, 
thus receiving its coating. Finally the sheet is subjected to 
a rolling operation, under heavy pressure, between highly 
polished rolls, by which the tin and steel are condensed and 
consolidated together, and the surface hardened and pol- 
ished. The inventor states that, by this method, the tin 
will be found to be so hardened upon and incorporated with 
the steel, as to produce a tin plate which is superior, in most 
respects, to any tin plate, wherever produced. 

HARDWARE IN HAVANA. 

The annual value of the imports into Havana ot iron- 
mongery and hardware is about $600,000, of which England 
supplies barely one-half. Consul-General Crowe states that 
German trade in these branches is constantly increasing, but 
so far has been confined to such articles as white metal spoons 
and forks, locks, cutlery and wire nails, which, however, 
form an important aggregate, as the consumption is consider- 
able. The German goods are generally inferior to the 
English, which are often of better quality than is actually 
required. German travelers pay more frequent visits, offer 
better terms, and give more attention to the requirements of 
the country than the representatives of English firms. The 
United States supplies barbed fence wire, cut nails, carpenter's 
tools, wheelbarrows, bolts and padlocks, and, according to 
the British Consul-General, "inferior gas and water valves. " 
Their pumps and plows are described as superior to the 
European articles. 

CRYSTALLIZED TIN [PLATE. 

Crystallized tin plate has a variegated primrose appear- 
ance, produced upon the surface by applying to it, in a 
heated state, some dilute nitro-muriatic acid for a few sec- 
onds, then washing it with water, drying, and coating it 
with lacquer. The figures are more or less diversified, ac- 
cording to the degree of heat and relative dilution of the 
acid. Place the tin plate, slightly heated, over a tub of 



374 

water, and rub its surface with a sponge dipped in a liquid 
composed of four parts of aquafortis and two of distilled 
water, holding one common salt or sal-ammoniac in solution. 
When the crystalline spangles seem to be thoroughly brought 
out, the plate must be immersed in water, washed either with 
a feather or a little cotton, taking care not to rub off the 
film of tin that forms the feathering, forthwith dried with a 
low heat, and coated with a lacquer varnish, otherwise it loses 
its luster in the air. If the whole surface is not plunged at 
once in cold water, but is partially cooled by sprinkling water 
on it, the crystallization will be obtained by blowing cold air 
through a pipe on the tinned surface, while it is just passing 
from the fused to the solid state. 

USEFUL RECIPES. 

Tinning Acid for Zinc or Brass. — Zinc, 3 oz. ; muri- 
atic acid, I pt. Dissolve, and add i pt. water and i oz. sal- 
ammoniac. 

To Solder Brass Easily — Cut out a piece of tin foil th^ 
size of the surface to be soldered. Then apply to the surface 
a solution of sal-ammoniac for a flux. Place the tin foi 
between the pieces, and apply a hot soldering-iron until the 
tin foil is melted. 

To Solder WitJiotit Heat — Steel filings, 2 oz. ; brass 
filings, 2 oz. ; fluoric acid, i^ oz. Dissolve the filings in the 
acid, and apply to the parts to be soldered, having first 
thoroughly cleaned the parts to be connected. Keep the 
fluoric acid in earthen or lead vessels only. 

To Tin Brass and Copper — Make a mixture of 3 lbs. 
cream of tartar, 4 lbs. tin shavings, and 2 gallons water, and 
boil. After the mixture has boiled sufficiently, put in the 
articles to be tinned, and continue the boiling. The tin will 
be precipitated on the articles. 

TO POLISH NICKEL-PLATE. 

To brighten and polish nickel-plating and prevent rust, 
apply rouge with a little fresh lard or lard oil on a wash- 
leather or piece of buckskin. Rub the bright parts, using 
as lirtle of the rouge and oil as possible ; wipe off with a 
clean rag slightly oiled. Repeat the wiping every day, and 
the polishing as often as necessary. 



375 



PATTERN FOR FLARING OVAL ARTICLES. 

Of all the great variety of patterns with which the tin man 
has to deal, there is probably none that seems more difficult 
and causes more trouble and perplexity to make than a flaring 
oval pan. By following the annexed diagrams and explana- 
tions, the development of this pattern will be seen to be sim- 
ple, easy and quickly per- 
formed. 

First, always describe the 
oval from two centers — thus 
making the bottom of the dish 
— parts of two diameters or 
circles. Separate the circles 
when they intersect each other, 
and proceed the same as in any 
round, flaring article. 

In Fig. I the compasses 
are set at a a, and the large circles described as A A B B, then 
set the compasses 2.t b b and describe the smaller circles, thus 
completing the oval or bottom of pan. 

To make the pattern for the body : In Fig. 2 mark A B 






the size of large diameter. Then draw the depth of vessel 
and flare desired, as A B CD. Extend the lines C A and 



376 

D B until they cross at ^, set the compasses at ^, and describe 
the curved Imes C D and A'B. Make the length A F equal 
to A A m Fig. i. Add the locks as shown in dotted lines; 
this will be the pattern for side of dish. 

In Fig. 3, make a a equal to the small diameter and pro- 
ceed the same -as in Fig. 2, this will be the end pattern. It 
takes two pieces of the large pattern and two of the small to 




Fig 4. 

make the dish. Should it be found desirable to make the 
body of pan in only two pieces, then cut the smaller or end 
pattern in tw^o and place it upon each side of the large pattern, 
as shown in Fig. 4. 

An oval can be made from three or more centers upon the 
same plan when desired. 

FLARING ARTICLES WITH ROUND CORNERS. 

First, to cut the pat- 
tern of an oblong %r. 
ing dish with square- 
cornered bottom and 
round cornered top, 
in two pieces, of which 
Fig. I is the ground 
plan, and Fig. 2 the 
side elevation. 

The height of side 
A, Fig. 2, is from a to 
b^ which is also the 
radius for the corners. 
First mark off the side 
A, Fig. 3 ; then strike 
the segments of thecircles a b; this gives the corner. Then 



r 




-\ 




• 




V 




J 






\ 


A 


I 








\ 


A, 


/ 



377 
mark off one-half of end on each side oi a b {c and d), -which 



Fig. 4. 



completes the pattern for 
one-half the dish. 

Fig. 4. For practice, 
we will now cut the pat- 
tern so the bottom, sides 
and corners will be in one 
piece. 

One end of the seam 
comes on the end piece, 
and on the other end in 
the center of the corner piece. 

Fig. 5, B, shows cone made by putting together the two 
flaring sides shown in Fig. 2, A'and C, the pattern required 
to construct said cone. D is the ground plan of cone B 







? 


ri 






n 




b 




divided into four parts. It will be noticed that the four cor- 
ners in Fig. I will make D, and that the pattern for the four 
corners {a b A, Fig. 3) are equal to C, Fig. 5. 

As each corner of Fig. i 
is one-fourth of a cone, so 
the pattern of each corner, 
Fig. 4, is one-fourth of the 
pattern C, required to make 
the cone B, Fig. 5. 

We will now suppose A, 
Fig. 2, to be the side view 
of a triangular dish con- 
structed on the same princiciple as A. Each of the 




378 

sides will be the same size as required to make the square dish 
only the pattern C, Fig. 
5, will be required to be 
divided into three partg 
for each corner of the 
triangle. Fig. 6 is a 
ground plan of bottom 
of dish. We willcut this 
pattern in one piece by 
marking off one of the 
rides, and then transfer- 
ing one-third of pattern 

Fia. 8. 




A, Fig. 7, to each 
side, until we have 
used the three sides 
and three corner 
pieces. 

The next step will 
be to cut the pattern 
of a flaring oblong 
dish, top and bottom 
having round cor- 
ners, of which Fig, 2 
will be a side view 
and A, Fig. 8, the 
ground plan. 

If the side and end 
pieces in A, Fig. 8, 
were removed, B 
would be the result. 
C is a side view and 
pattern for B. Now, 
if we wish a pattern 
for the A, all that is 
required is to cut the pattern for the four corners (C) into four 




379 

pieces, and place the side and end pieces between, or, if the. 
Fig. 9. 






pattern is wanted in two pieces, 
take a side on which we place two 
corners and a half of an end 
against each corner, as follows: 

Or we can suppose Fig. 10, B, 
to be the side view of dish having 
half-round flaring ends, but ends 
of different diameters, as shown 
by Fig. 10, A. 

We will have the small end 
the same as in Fig. 8, so as to use 
the same pattern. 

B, Fig. 10, showing side view 
and radius of large and small ' ' "; .'' 

circle. 

Fig. 10, C, giving the pattern for one-half of A, Fig. 10. 

To have the drawings appear plain, locks were not 
added. 

MAKING EAVE TROUGH. 

The outside line on the larger of the two small diagrams 

represents a No. 9 
spring wire clamp, 
one to be used at 
each seam of the 
trough. The dark 
line on outside of the 
smaller diagram rep- 
resents a small clamp 
used to hold the bead down at the ends of the log. The 




3^o 



large diagram shows the log with the trough clamped to it. 
It will be seen that a ^-inch piece is secured to the flat side 
of the log, which piece projects ^ of an inch beyond one edge 



of the log. A rocker may also be placed under the log. 
The log is secured to the bench by hooks or staples with a 
long shank fastened to the bench and hooking onto spikes 
driven into the ends of the log. 

TABLE OF HEIGHT OF ELBOW ANGLEo. 



The following table gives the height of pitch of miter 
lines for elbows from one inch to twenty-five inches in 

diameter. It will be 
found of great assist- 
ance in describing el- 
bow patterns quickly 
and accurately, by do- 
ing away with draw- 
ings and geometrical 
calculations, which 
would otherwise be 
necessary to get the 
correct pitch of elbows. 
The accompanying dia- 
gram indicates the po- 
sition of base and 
miter lines. The 
height of pitch, that 
is, the length from O 
to W, is shown by the table for all elbow^s from one inch to 
twenty-five inches in diameter, and of from two to ten 
pieces. In two-piece elbows the height of pitch is the diam- 
eter of the elbow, and this column is added to make the 
table complete. No matter how large the sweep of an el- 
bow, the angle of pitch remains the same, and the only dif- 
ference to be made in cutting the pattern is to add space as 
desired, as indicated at X in the diagram. Locks and seams 
are to be added. 




38i 



C V. 












NO. OF 


PIECES 


IN ELBOW. 


































































Ul"* 


2 




3 




4 




5 




6 




7 




8 




9 




10 


I 


I 




7-16 




9-32 




7-32 




6-32 




5-32 




1-8 




1-8 




3-32 


2 


2 




27-32 




18-32 




13-32 




11-32 




9-32 




1-4 




7-32 




6-32 


3 


3 


I 


1-4 




13-16 




5-8 




1-2 




7-16 




11-32 




5-16 




9-32 


4 


4 


I 


21-32 


I 


1-16 




13-16 




21-32 




9-16 




15-32 




13-32 




3-8 


5 


5 


2 


1-16 


I 


5-16 








13-16 




11-16 




9-16 




1-2 




7-16 


6 


6 


2 


1-2 


I 


5-8 




3-16 




31-32 




13-16 




11-16 




5-8 




9-16 


7 


7 


2 


29-32 


I 


7-8 




3-8 




1-8 




15-16 




13-16 




9-16 




5-8 


8 


8 


3 


5-162 


1-8 




9-16 




1-4 


I 


1-16 




29-32 




13-16 




23-32 


9 


9 


3 


23-32 2 


13-32 




13-16 




7-16 I 


3-16 


I 






29-32 




13-16 


lO 


10 


4 


1-8 2 


11-16J2 






9-16 




5-i6|i 


1-8 


I 






29-32 


II 


II 


4 


1-2 2 


15-16 2 


3-16 




3-4 




7-16^1 


1-4 


I 


3-32 


I 




12 


12 


4 


15-163 


3-162 


3-8 




7-8 




9-16 I 


3-8 


I 


3-16 


I 


1-16 


13 


13 


5 


3-8 


3 


7-8 |2 


9-16 


2 


1-16 




23-32 




15^2 


I 


5-16 


1 


5-32 


14 


14 


5 


3-4 


3 


23-322 


3-4 


2 


7-32 




7-8 




9-16 I 


3-8 


I 


1-4 


15 


15 


6 


5-32 


4 




2 


31-32 


2 


3-8 


2 






11-16J1 


1-2 


I 


11-32 


i6 


16 


6 


19-32 


4. 


1-4 


3 


5-32 


2 


17-32 


2 


1-8 




13-16 


I 


19-32]! 


7-16 


17 


17 


7 




4 


7-32 


3 


6-16 


2 


11-16 


2 


1-4 




15-16 


I 


11-16 


I 


1-2 


i8 


18 


7 


3-8 


4 


25-32 


3 


9-16 


2 


27-32 


2 


3-8 


2 


1-32 


I 


25-32 


I 


19-32 


19 


19 


7 


13-16 


5 


1-16 


3 


3-4 


3 




^ 


1-2 


2 


1-8 


I 


7-8 


I 


ii-i6 


20 


20 


8 


1-4 


5 


5-16 


3 


31-32 


3 


3-16 


2 


21-32 2 


1-4 


2 




I 


25-32 


21 


21 


8 


5-8 


5 


19-32 


4 


5-32 


3 


11-32 


2 


13-16 2 


3-8 


2 


1-16 I 


7-8 


22 


22 


9 


1-16 


5 


27-32 


4 


3-8 


3 


1-2 


2 


15-16 2 


1-2 


2 


3-16 I 


15-16 


23 


23 


9 


7-16 


6 


3-32 


4 


9-16 


3 


21-32 


3 


1-16 2 


iQ-32 


2 


9-322 


1-32 


24 


24 


9 


7-8 


6 


3-8 


4 


3-4 


3 


13-16 


3 


3-162 


11-16 


2 


3-8 2 


1-8 


25 


25 


10 


9-326 


5-8 


4 


15-163 


15-16 


3 


5-16 2 


13-16 


2 


7-162 


3-16 



The table is adapted to right-angled elbows only. The 
line of figures at the top of the table indicate the number of 
pieces of which elbows are to be made. All other figures are 
in inches, the first or left hand column being the diameter of 
elbows, the remaining column being the height of pitch 
requ)**ed. 

ZINC AS A FIRE EXTINGUISHER. 

Zinc, placed upon the stove, in fire or in grate, is said to 
have proved itself an effective extinguisher of chimney fires. 
To a member of the Boston Fire Department is reported to 
be due the credit of successfully introducing this simple 
scheme. When a fire starts inside a chimney, from whatever 
cause, a piece of tin sheet zinc, about four inches square, is 
merely put into the stove or grate connecting with the chim- 
ney. The zinc fuses and liberates acidulous fumes, which, 
passing up the flue, are said to almost instantly put out what- 
ever fire may be there. It certainly sounds simple enough. 



382 

HOME-MADE ASH SIFTER. 

An Iowa correspondent sent Good Housekeeping the fol- 
lowing diagram and description of a home-made ash-sifter, 
any tinner or other person may construct : " I got my idea of 

it from seeing sand sifted by 
throwing it on a sieve that 
stood slanting. The wire 
sieve (already wove) can 
be bought at a hard- 
ware store for twenty 
cents a running foot, and it 
is two or two and a half 
feet wide, and this can be 
tacked to a frame made to 
fit the sifter, one end just 
reaching over the box for 
coal, and the other end ex- 
tending nearly to the top 
of the sifter. There is no 
shaking, nor any dust. 
Ashes are emptied in the 
top of the sifter, the coal 
being carried over the sieve to the coal box, while the ashes go 
through into the ash box. The sieve should be two and a 
half feet long. Can use a sliding or swinging cover." 

TO DESCRIBE A MITER. 

As there seems to be some interest manifested in regard to 
the miter question, and nothing definite as to the desired 
miter has been given, I wish to submit the following rule: 

Let a in diagram be the size of the article upon which the 
miter is to be cut ; strike a circle full size, or from edge to 
edge as shown at e and b of the diagram ; draw a line as 
shown by d^ from ^ to ^, which divides the circle equally. If 

/ 





you wish a square miter set compass at e and obtain one- 
fourth of the circle as shown at figure 2, and draw line b f 



383 » 

intersecting the circle where the point of the compass shows 
one-fourth of circle. Cutting this line you have a square 
miter. Should you wish your work to form six squares, take 
the sixth of a circle as shown at figure i by line c b ; or, if 
eight squares, one-eighth of circle, and intersect the circle at 
point designated by compass. 

A miter may be cut for any angle desired by the same 
rule ; divide the circle into the number of squares wanted, 
and proceed as shown above. This rule does not apply to 
forming a miter for gutters. 

TO PF.SCRIBE A PATTERN FOR A FOUR-PIECE 
ELBOW. 



Three and four piece elbows have very largely taken the 
place of the old right-angled elbow, on account of their bet- 
ter appearance, and also 
because they lessen ob- 
struction to draft. The 
machine-made article is 
kept in stock for all 
common sizes, but the 
tinner is liable to be 
called upon at any time 
to make such an elbow, 
on account of stock be- 
ing sold out or of un- 
usual size, or other 
cause. Herewith are 
given diagrams and ex- 
planations which will 
enable any tinner to 
construct a pattern for 
any desired size. 

Let AB E D,Fig. i- 
A98 7 6 s A 9Q1B be the given elbow; 
draw the line F C ; make F M equal in length to one-half 
the diameter of the elbow, with F as a center ; describe the 
arc K L; divide the arc K L into three equal parts; draw 
the lines F II and F I ; also the line I H ; divide the section 
H K into two equal parts, and draw the line F G ; draw the 
lin3 A B at right angles to B C ; describe the semi-circle 
A N B ; div'^'- <-he semi-circle into any number of equal 
parts ; from me points draw lines parallel to B C, as I, 2, 35 
etc. 



R 


L 












C 




P/My 


/^ 


e 




/^'^^ ^-<-^ 


r^ 




///( 


1<<^ 


1 ' 










^^^' 
















• 


/ 
/ 


^ 

-. 


"^ 






N 
\ 



3^4 

Set off the line ABC, Fig. 2, equal in length to the cir- 
cumference of elbow A B ; erect the lines A F, B D and 




C E ; set off on each side of the line B D the same number 
of equal distances as in the semi-circle AN B ; from the 
points draw lines parallel to B D, as i, i, 2, 2, etc. ; make 
B T> equal to B G ; make A F and C E equal to A J ; also 
each of the parallel lines, bearing the same number as 1,1, 
2, 2, 3, 3, etc. ; then a line traced through the points will 
form the first section ; make F G and E J equal to H I ; re- 
verse section No. i ; place E at G and F at J ; trace a. line 
from G to J ; make G H and J I equal to P O, Fig. 67, or 
to D K, Fig. 6S; take Sec. No. i, place F at H and E at 
I, and trace a line from H to I ; this forms Sec. No. ^ 
and 4. 

Edges to be allowed. 



In the West Indies the work of coaling ships is performed 
by negresses. Like ants going to and fro, each of these 
women, with a load of coal weighing about forty pounds, 
carried in a basket on top of the head, climbs the gang-plank, 
and the bunkers are filled in a wonderfully short time. For 
this arduous work, a cent a basket is the general price, but 
night work and emergencies double the rate. A penny is 
given to each woman as she fills her basket, and the number 
given out forms a check on the tally kept by the parties 
receiving the coal. The name of the firm owning the coal 
pile is stamped on the coins, which are current throughout the 
■ si and s. 



385 

A WIRE FLOWER STAND. 

Tinners are ingenious, and can generally make anything 
from sheet metal, wire, or other light material, which they 
take a fancy to try their hands at. Many have made orna- 
mental articles at odd 
moments with which to 
beautify their own home, 
or possibly that of some 
young lady. By their 
skill in this direction 
they are frequently able 
to make presents of arti- 
cles of their own make, 
which are not merely or- 
namental, but also usefuL 
This is commendable, 
and such skill and enter- 
prise is worthy of encour- 
agement. 

We here present an 
illustration of a new 
round flower-stand con- 
structed in three parts, 
which can be taken asun- 
der so as to convert the 
stand at will into a rustic 
table. The cut is taken from the London Ironmonger, 
which says that the originator of the flower-stand is doing 
well with it. 

TO STRIKE AN OVAL OF ANY LENGTH OR 
WIDTH 

In a recent nupiber of the American Artisan, which I 
have mislaid, some one asks for a rule to strike an oval of 
any desired width and length. There are several different 
ways of striking an oval or elhpse, but I find the one I en- 
close you the most practical. 

Let A B and C D equal width and length. On the line 
C D lay off the width of oval as C C. Divide the distance 
from E to D into three equal parts, and lay off two of the 
parts thus formed on either side of the center F, as G and 
H. Span the dividers from H to G, and, with F as a center, 
check the line A B, as at M and K. Draw line intersecting 
the points H M G K, and, with the radius G D and K B 
strike the ends and sides of oval. 




386 

AN ORNAMENTAL PAPER HOLDER. 

Tinners with leisure who desire to use their handiwork in 
making something for Christmas, will be interested in the 




accompanying illustration which we reproduce from a 
European journal. It is intended for a holder for paper, 
magazines, or sheet music. 

HEATING AND VENTILATION. 

Much continues to be said and written about heating and 
ventilation, and some may consider it a worn-out subject ; but 
so long as millions of people continue to be poisoned by 
impm^e air, agitation to secure reform cannot be overdone. 
It will do no harm, therefore, to again name some of the evi- 
dences and consequences of a lack of ventilation : Head- 
ache ; dull pressure on the lungs ; lungs become parched, pro- 
ducing irritation ; dryness of the throat, producing sore 
throat ; a feverish condition of the whole system. These are 
some of the immediate consequences, but by no means embrace 



387 

all the ultimate evil effects. It should be the duty of all 
furnacemen to call the attention of their patrons to these 

C C 




matters. Furnaces are often blamed for the quality of air 
supplied, while the fault lies solely with the operators in not 
making provision for the supply of pure air to the furnace, 
and proper ventilation. 

This subject will not take care of itself .We must first 
feel that fresh air is worth taking some trouble to obtain, and 
then we must study how to obtain it without the body's 
becoming either chilled or overheated in summer or winter, 
in the daytime or in the night. At night more care needs to 
be taken to secure ventilation, because there are no doors 
being opened ; no stirring about to promote circulation. 
Especially should pure air be supplied to the sick room, and 
the vitiated air removed. 

In summer we depend on the natural movement of the air 
for ventilation, windows and doors being open more or less. 
In winter, with the house closed up, it requires thought and 
effort to provide for a change of air in apartments. It must 
be remembered that, under natural conditions, air moves hor- 
izontally, according to the direction of the wind. Heat causes 
air to move in a perpendicular direction. In dry weather, 
heated air and smoke will rise until the same density of atmos- 
phere is reached, which soon results from loss of heat. When 
the atmosphere contains a great deal of moisture, smoke will 
descend, on account of quick condensation and loss of heat. 

This principle, understood by all must be kept in view in 
any plan for ventilation. Suppose we wish to ventilate a 
room in the morning when the air outside has become a little 
warmer than the air inside. The upper part of a window 
being opened the warmer air outside would blow across the 
top of the room, leaving the air below undisturbed Now, 
if we open the window at the bottom we shall secure a cir- 
culation of air in the room. While the outside air is warmer 
we do not notice the draft. Suppose we now go i.ito the 
kitchen, where the windows are only opened at the bottom 
and raised halfway up; we shall feel the lower part is cool, 



while the air in the upper part is undisturbed. Now, if we 
open the top of the window and divide the difference so as to 
have the top and bottom open, we shall have a circulation. 
Or if we open a door and hold a candle at the top and then 
at the bottom, we will see the same circulation illustrated by 
the cold air flowing in at the bottom and the hot air out at 
the top. These experiments furnish the natural laws which 
should govern ventilation. 

Carbonic acid gas from respiration and other exhalations 
of the body, as well as gases caused by decayed vegetation in 
cellars, or from garbage, sewer emanations or any kind of 




filth, are all poisonous, and, being heavier than pure air, sink 
to the bottom of a room by gravitation. It is a gross error 
to suppose, as many do, that the foul air rises to the ceiling 
and remains there. The sickness and death of children, often 
attributed to other causes, arises from blood-poisoning from 
the foul air near the floor to which children are much more 
exposed than grown persons. 

The illustrations given herewith ^^-ill show where 
the foul air is and hovr it is confined unless drawn 
off by some superior force. In Fig. i, A represents a 
cellar, DD the walls, CC the surface of the ground outside of 
"the house. Foul air seeks the lowest space by gravitation, 
^erefore all below CC is foul air because there is no ventila- 
tion to draw it away. So long as it remains stagnant, pure 
air will not take the place of the foul. Now, if we place a 
furnace in the cellar, as shown in Fig. 2, and take the air 
from the same, it would amount to almost the same thing as 
living in the cellar, for you breathe the same air. Opening 
the windows furnishes an outlet for the warm air and thus 
cools off the furnace; but the same foul air, dust and ashes 
Ire brought up from the furnace for inhalation. 

Again, if the rooms are closed, the air from the furnace 
>il rise to the ceiling, then pass to the windows, where the 



389 

temperature will be reduced, and will then descend to the 
floor and down the sides of the hot-air flue to the furnace to 
be reheated and sent up again. This has been proven by ex- 
periment. The children will be the first to be affected by 
this reheated foul air. 

How can we obtain pure air? By ventilation. How can 
ventilation be secured? In various ways. The principal 
method used is the ventilating shaft. One shaft is generally 
sufficient for one dwelling, and is usually in the form of a 
large chimney, as shown in Fig. 3. A is the chimney; B is 
a heavy sheet-iron pipe, with air space around the pipe for 
ventilation; (7 is an opening into the pipe B for connection 
with the furnace; Z>is a place for cleaning out just below the 
furnace opening; these two openings should be in the cellar 
where the furnace is; C is the place for the kitchen stove, 
which will supply sufficient heat for ventilating the house dur- 
ing the summer season. ^ Fig. 3. 

We will next consider how to supply the " 
furnace with pure air. It should be taken 
from the side from which come the pre- 
vailing winds. Of course, care should be 
taken that it is not polluted by a sewage 
hopper, water closet or other source of con- 
taination. The opening into the air-duct 
should be two feet or more above the ground, 
and should be covered with fine wire gauze. 
The air-duct should be carried along the 
ceiling of the cellar until it reaches the fur- 
nace, as shown by dotted lines in Fig. 2, 
then drop down at the side of the furnace to 
the bottom. The space around the furnace 
should be made air-tight. Any foul air in 
the cellar will be drawn into the fire-box of 
the furnace to promote the combustion of 
the fuel. The area of the cold-air duct 
should, in no case, be less than half the area 
of the hot-air pipes. 

In setting a furnace, particular care 
saould be taken to see that the chimney has t 
a good draught. There should be sufficient height between 
the top of the furnace and the ceiling of the cellar to permit 
a good rise for all the hot-air pipes from the furnace. 
If there is not sufficient height in the collar to admit 
of this, the furnace should be set into a pit dug out 
below the cellar floor and bricked up. Ample room 
should be allowed in front of the furnace for cleaning 





1 '^ 


i . v/V 


\\W 



390 

out ashes. All the pipes should be kept as close to 
the furnace as possible. If any hot-air pipe is extended 
more than fifteen feet from it, it should be encased with 
about half an inch space around, with both ends of casing 
entirely closed, to prevent the loss of heat. The location 
of the furnace should be so that the length of hot-air pipes 
shall be about equal. The smoke-pipe should be run directly 
to the chimney. Dampers should be placed in all the hot-air 
pipes close to the furnace, and, when the pipes are not in use, 
the dampers should be closed. The vapor-pan should be 
placed where the water will not boil. In some cases, if set 
on the top of the furnace, the water will boil over and crack 
the furnace. A proper place must be provided for it. In a 
brick-set furnace, the vapor-pan shouldbe automatic in action, 
being connected with an outside pan with a ball and cock. 
Without this arrangement it is hard to keep up a regular 
supply of vapor, as this is a point generally neglected. 

In order to distribute the heat through the rooms, the 
ventilating registers must be located in the proper places. 
They should be placed in the floor near the windows or in the 
coldest part of each room, so as to draw the heat to that 
part. Never run a hot-air pipe up an outside wall if you 
wish success with your work. If ventilators are put into a 
side wall, be sure that they extend do\\-n entirely to the floor, 
otherwise there will be a cold stratum of air next the floor, 
causing cold feet. A failure to do this, causes children to 
have cold feet at school. People frequently sufler in a simi- 
lar way at church. 

TWO SPINDLE MILLING MACHINE. 

The illustration represents a milling machine of new de- 
sign, recently built by E. W. Bliss Company, of Brookhm, 
N. Y., foruse in their own works. 

x\s will be seen, the general arrangement is that of a 
planer, but, in the place of the ordinary planer tools, are substi- 
tuted vertical spindles for butt milling. 

The table has a longitudinal travel of 36 inches, and is fed 
by a screw which may be operated by the hand-wheel sho\Mi 
at right side of bed, or fed by power, in either direction. 

Four speeds for feed for the table are provided, and in 
addition a power " rapid transit " motion, which is operated 
to run the table in either direction,by means of the hand-lever 
sho\\Ti to the right of bed. The quick motion is especially in- 
tended for running the table back after the cut is finished, and 
being entirely mdependent of the cone feed, both can be in 



391 

operation at one and the same time, thus saving the trouble 
of throwing off the cone-feed in order to run the table back 
for starting a new cut. 

The cross-head is raised and lowered by power, much in 
the same manner as in a planer, and in addition each spindle 
has an independent vertical adjustment of two inches oper* 
ated by the hand cranks shown at the upper boxes on saddles. 
Each saddle is capable of independent lateral motion, oper- 
ated by the large hand- wheel at front, and has also a power 
attachment for feeding, supplied with four changes of speed. 

As in the case of the table, the saddles may be moved 
independently from the power feed while the latter is in oper- 
tion. The cross-head is made of sufficient length to allow 
the saddles to be run out far enough to bring the millmg cut- 
ters outside of the housings, between which the distance is 
fifty-four inches, ^ 

The machine illustrated was built for special work not 
requiring a long table, but the latter can be made of any 
length required, and the builders are now filling several orders 
for machines- with five to six feet length of table. 

The driving-shaft, carried by cross-head, is splined its 
length between bearings to allow for the lateral motion of the 
saddles, and is driven from the floor counter by the familiar 
arrangement of belting shown, which dispenses with the 
necessity of a tightener to make up for the vertical adjust- 
ment of the cross-head. 

In some of the machines now in course of construction, 
the arrangement is such as to allow the floor counter to be 
dispensed with, and one at top of machine to be substituted, 
which, in some cases, might be considered preferable. 

By the use of the two spindles on the work for which this 
machine was designed, and with special attachments to facili- 
tate the setting, this tool is now doing work that heretofore 
required the use of five planers, thus proving itself a most val- 
uable addition to the equipment of a machine shop. 

EXPLOSION OF A DOMESTIC HOT WATER 
BOILER. 

Explosions of domestic hot water boilers attached to 
cooking ranges, water-backs in ranges, etc., through freezing 
up of the pipes in cold weather, are becoming so frequent 
that it may not be out of place to give an account of one of 
the most destructive ones that has occurred recently, and 
point out its cause. 

The boiler in question was used in an hotel in a large city 



392 

in one of the Northwestern States, where the temperature is 
very low at times. It was connected to the kitchen range, 
the range was a very large one, and the heating surface was 
furnished by a coil oi 1%. inch pipe, placed near the top, 
instead of the cast-iron front or back, such as is commonly 
used in the smaller ranges in private dwellings. The con- 
nections to the boiler were made in the usual manner ; the 
accompanying cut shows its essential features. 

The operation of all boilers of this sort is as follows : 
The connections being made, as sho^^-n in cut, the water 
is turned on from tht main supply, and the entire system is 




I 



filled with water. When it is filled, and all outlets are 
closed, it is evident that no more water can run in, although 
the boiler is in free connection with, and is subjected to, the 
full pressure of the source of supply. When a fire is started 
in the range, and the water in the circulating pipes, or 
water-back, is heated, the water expands, is consequently 
lighter, and flows out through the pipe into the boiler at A, 
as this connection is placed higher up than the one at B ; 
this starts the circulation, and the water, as it becomes 



393 

heated, constantly flows into the boiler ac A, and rises to the 
upper part of the boiler, while the cooler water at the bot- 
tom of the boiler flows out into the circulating pipes at B, 
and, if no w^ater is drawn, a slow circulation goes on, as heat 
is radiated from the boiler, in the direction indicated by the 
arrows, the water at the top of the boiler always being much 
hotter than at the bottom. When the hot cock is opened, 
cold water instantly begins to flow into the boiler at D, by 
reason of the pressure on the city main, and forces hot water 
out of the boiler at C. Thus it will be seen that hot water 
cannot be drawn unless the cold water inlet is free, and it is 
equally evident that cold water cannot enter the boiler unless 
the hot water cock or some other outlet is open. 

The above points being understood, we are in a position 
to investigate the cause of the explosion referred to/which 
killed one person and badly injured twelve or thirteen others, 
besiaes badly damaging the building. ^ 

On the morning of the explosion fire was started as usual 
in the range about four o'clock a. m. It was found, on try- 
ing to draw water, that none could be had from either cold 
or hot water pipes ; it was rightly judged that the pipes were 
frozen. The fire was continued in the range, however, and 
the breakfast prepared as best it could be, and a plumber sent 
for to thaw out the pipes. He arrived on the premises about 
seven o'clock, as would naturally be the case. He opened 
both hot and cold water cocks, and, getting neither steam nor 
water, concluded there was no daitger^ and proceeded to 
thaw out some pipes in the laundry department first. About 
an hour afterward the explosion occurred. The lower head 
of the boiler let go, and the main portion of the boiler shot 
upward like a rocket through the four stories of the hotel 
and out through the roof. 

The coroner held an inquest on the remains of the person 
killed, and some of the testimony given, as reported in a 
local paper, would be amusing were it not for the tragic 
nature of the affair which called it out. The usual expert, 
with the usual vast and unlimited years of experience, was 
there, and swore positively to statements which a ten-year- 
old boy who had been a week in the business ought to be 
ashamed to make. He had examined the wreck with a view 
to solving the mystery (?) The matter was as much of a 
mystery now as on the day of the explosion. His theories 
were exploded as fast as he presented them. The boiler must 
have been empty. If it had been full of water, it could not 
possibly have exploded, etc., etc. And then a lot more 
nonsense about the " peculiar " construction of the boiler. 



394 

As a matter of fact, there was nothing peculiar about the 
boiler or its connections. Everything was precisely like all 
boilers of its class, of which there are probably hundreds of 
thousands in daily operation throughout the country, and, 
moreover, they were all right. 

Now let us inquire what caused the explosion. Every- 
thing was all right at eight o'clock the previous evening, for 
water was drawn at that time. The fire was built in the 
range at four o'clock a. m. It is admitted that the cold 
water supply pipes were frozen, for no water could be had 
for kitchen use. It is also proved absolutely that the hot 
water supply was frozen or otherwise stopped up^ by the fact 
that at seven o'clock the plumber who came to thaw out the 
pipes ojpened the hot water cock and got " neither water nor 
steam. ^ Here was his opportunity to prevent any trouble, 
but he let it pass. Any one who understood his business 
would have known that there must have been a tremendous 
pressure in the boiler at this time, as the range had been fired 
steadily for three hours ; there were about eight square feet 
heating surface exposed to the fire by the circulating pipe in 
the range, and there had been no outlet for the great pressure 
which must have been generated during this three hours 
firing. The blow-off cock should have been tried at once ; 
if this were clear, and the probability is, from its proximity 
to the range, that it was clear, the pressure could have been 
relieved, and disaster averted. If the blow-off proved to be 
stopped up, then the fire should have been at once taken out 
of the range. At the time the plumber opened the cocks 
connecting with the boiler, it probably was under a pressure 
of 400 or 500 pounds per square inch. An ordinary cast- 
iron waterback such as is used in small ranges in private 
houses would have exploded shortly after the fire was built, 
but it will be noticed that the heating surface in this case 
was furnished by a coil of i ^-inch pipe ; this was very 
strong, and the boiler was the first thing to give way, simply 
because it was the weakest part of the system. 

Accidents of this sort can be easily avoided by exercising 
a little intelligence and care. The hot water cock should 
always be opened the first thing on entering the kitchen 
every morning. If the water flows freely, fire may then be 
started in the range without danger. If it does not flow 
freely, don't build a fire until it does. 

A Cement to Make Joints for Granite Monu- 
ments — Use clean sand, twenty parts ; litharge, two parts ; 
fiuicklime, one part, and linseed oil s to form a thin paste. 



395 

USEFUL SHOP KINKS. 

Fig. I. A rule for different angles, or rise of elevations 
for elbows : 

The usual rise given to 
furnace pipe elbows is 
one inch to the foot. A 
rule to obtain the desired 
result is as follows, and 
is almost identical with 
the one commonly used 
to get the height and 
pitch of miter line of 
right-angled elbows. It 
IS applicable to any sized 
throat and any sized el- 
bow ; also, to elbows 
with any number of 
pieces or sections. 

First draw lines a c 
and <: ^, Fig. I, at right 
angles to each other. 
From point c on line c by 
measure off I foot, and 
perpendicular from the 
point thus obtained erect 
line d to r, which is the 
desired height you wish 
the elbow to rise, or 
angle from a true right-angled elbow, in this case one inch to 
the foot. From point c as center, draw the arc a to r. 
From point r draw the line r c for base line. This will give 
the correct elevation, as proof clearly shows by the dotted 
lines c to z and r to m; these show the continuation that the 
elbow leads to, namely, as in this instance, i inch to the 
foot, or I foot in 12 feet. The line <: to ;r is i foot, and 
from X to Zy i inch. 

If an elbow of four pieces is desired, divide the arc or 
curve r to a into six equal parts ; if an elbow of three pieces 
or sections is wanted, divide same into four equal parts. 
From point c for a four-piece elbow, draw line c to s. and 
from point ?/, where inner curve of elbow intersects line r x, 
draw line n to / parallel to line c r, and same intersecting 
line r s at I. This much gives the pitch and rise for miter 
line for [a four-piece elbow of the desired elevation. For a 
three-piece elbow the dotted lines from point k on the inner 




39^ 
and on outer curve, give the miter de- 



FlG. 



curve to points 
sired. 

I have also shown a 
smaller-sized elbow in 
the drawing to show how 
the rule works, and is 
applied on same. It is, 
of course, not necessary 
to give the same size of 
throat as is given in the 
drawing, nor the same 
outside sweep. This rule 
will suit any case or sized 
elbow as may be desired, 
and as one becomes fa- , 
miliar wath the working of 
the rule, some of the 
other lines need not be 
drawm out, but are here 
given to make the draw- 
ing complete. 

The above is given to 
get the complete data for 
side elevation which are 
necessary to develop the 

patterns for the different / 

sections of an elbow. To develop the same I will give a 
quick snap rule, which comes so near right as to be prac- 
tically almost correct. I will, however, first give a good 
snap rule for angles. 

If Fig. 3 is examined, it shows the usual long and tedious 
geometrical method of obtaining miter lines for both a two- 
piece, and also a three-piece angle, both of the angles being 
of the same pitch. The solid lines are for a three-piece angle, 
and the dotted lines are for a two-piece angle. % 

Now, to do away with all this drawing, and to get a quick 
and very nearly correct method to obtain the desired result, 
suppose an angle is wanted as is given by the lines a b and 
a to r. Fig. 3, the diameter to be as full drawing requires, 
proceed as follows: First measure off the distance which is 
the size of diameter wanted, from a to b; do the same from 
a to r, and from points thus obtained, which are c and b, 
draw the line d from c to b. Then from either line, a c qx 
line a b, draw at right angles the line a to x^ as shown, the 
line a x intersecting line d at x. This much gives the re- 
quired elevation for miter line of a two-piece angle as called 




for; line ^from ^ to jr is miter line, ^ to jf is height of rise, 
and a to c^ base line, which is size oY diameter called for. 
The line ^ to «^ divided into half gives the point r where the 
miter line intersects., of a three-piece angle ; r to « is height, 
« to r is base line, and r to r is miter line, as will be seen by- 
dotted line in drawing. Twice the length of distance of line 
from points o. to is the width of outer curve of center sec- 
tion. You must, ot course, allow for laps or burrs for join- 
ing same together when cutting pattern. 

Compare this with the solid line center section of full side 
elevation, and see how much quicker this method is over the 
old way. When once accustomed to use this method, you 
will use no other. This rule is absolutely correct for a two- 
piece angle, and varies so little ,on a three-piece angle fj-om 

/ 




being absolutely correct, as that the variation is practically 
of no moment. 

^ To develop the stretch-out, Fig. 2, lay out the full lengtl] 
of circumference, as is shown in Fig. 2 from a to ^, and! 
divide this length into six equal parts as in drawing. Makel 
the center line. No. 2, same height as required, as in this 
case for the two-piece angle of Fig. 3. Next divide the! 
right and left lines nearest to the center line, into four equal! 
parts, and mark of one off these parts nearest to the top of 
each line ; and do the same as to spacing to the lines nearesti 
to the end of stretch-out, as lines No. 4 and r, but with the! 
difference that you mark off one space at the bottom of each! 
line as the drawing fully shows. C'^ntinue the center line 



398 

indefinicely downward, and with dividers strike the arc i, 2 
and 3, cutting lines at points i, 2 and 3. Draw line b in- 
definitely upward, reverse the dividers, and with line b as 
center line, draw the arc from point 5 to point 4, cutting 
points 5 and 4; do the same on the other end. Then draw a 
straight line from point 3 to 4, and same from i to r. This 
completes the pattern. Allow for locks or laps on both 
ends, and miter lines, of course. 

The method given above is an old one, but not so uni- 
versally known among tinners as its merits deserve. This 
method is also applicable to develop the pattern for elbow 
as given in Fig. i. I use it for all kinds of elbows. 

TO DRAW ANY OVAL WITH SQUARE AND 
CIRCLE. 




The foUovdng is a correct rule to draw any size or oval 
used in the tin shop, wnth square and circle : 

Draw the line from I to 2, which is the length of the ovaL 
Draw line from center to 3, which is one-half the width, and 
draw a line from i to 3. Set compass from i to center ; 
leave one point on i, and mark 4. Set compass from center 
to 3. Leave one end (of compass) in center and mark 5. Set 
compass from 4 to 5, and from 6 draw head lines of circles 7 
and 8, and dot 7 and 8 from points i and 2. Set compass 
from 7 to 7, and mark 9 from 7 7 and 8 8. Complete oval 
from 9. 



399 
RAIN WATER STRAINER. 

I hand you a sketch of a rain water strainer which I have 
put up and which gives good results. It is eighteen 
inches high, twelve inches in diameter at the half-circle, five 
and a half inches length of bottom, and five inches deep. 
Allow for all seams. 

Ai A^, Dy B'^y B, represents the outside of finished 




strainer. K"\s, a section of circular top hinged at B^ and 
fastened with a turn button. The dotted lines at E show 
the section of circular top, K, partly open; /« is a galvanized 
strainer with three-eighth inch holes. The strainer rests 
upon supports at the ends, and may be removed at will. L 
is a tin strainer with one-eighth inch holes, and is soldered in 
place. F and G are three-inch inlet and outlet. 2 2 are 
straps on back side, by which the strainer is fastened to the 
building. 

As will be seen, the top strainer catches the refuse which 
is washed from the roof and gutters, and is easily taken out; 
the finer particles are caught below and may be removed 
when the top strainer is out. 



400 
OVAL DAMPER. 

^nciosed please find method of obtaining an oval damper, 
that when closed in, the pipe will be at an angle of 45°. 

Let A B C D iepre= 



sent the pipe, and E F 
the line through the pipe at 
an angle of 45°, which will 
be the position of the damper 
when closed. Divide the 
semi-circle into any even num- 
ber of equal parts, as, i, 2, 3, 
4, etc. (even numbers, because 
in doing so you obtain the 
center line of the short diam- 
eter of the damper). Carry 
lines up until they cut the 
line E F as dotted lines, then 
draw soHd lines across, and 
at right angles to the line 
E F, and number them to 
correspond with spaces in 
semi-circle, as I, 2, 3, 4, etc. 
With the dividers step from 
a to I on dotted line, and 
with one point of the dividers 
at a'; cut the solid line I each 
side of the line E. F. Step 
from b to 2, and with one 
point of the dividers on b', cut the solid line to both sides of 
the line E F, and so on until all the spaces have been trans- 
ferred. Now set the dividers so as to draw an arc through 
the points 5, 6, 7, both sides of the line E F, and then set 
them to draw the two end circles, as 11, 12, ii, and 1,0, i. 
Draw a.' line free hand through the points from I to 5, and 
from 7 to II, both sides of line E F, and you have the re- 
quired damper. 

The same method is used to obtain the shape of a hole in 
piece of sheet metal that a pipe is to pass through on an 
angle. For instance, let A B C D represent a pipe, and 
E F a roof through which the pipe passes ; we want a piece 
of iron or tin laid on the roof for the pipe to pass through ; 
we want to know how to get the shape of the opening. 
Employ this method and it will give you the required article 
every time. 




40I 

A TAPERING ROUND-CORNERED SQUARE 
RESERVOIR. 

?Not long since, there was an inquiry in your columns fol 
a pattern for a tapering, round-cornered square reservoir, 1 
give herewith diagrams for constructing such a pattern : 

Fig. I is the size, top and bottom (A C FHDBGEis 
the top, and I K N P L J O M is the bottom), and Fig. i 
the upright height. Take the 
perpendicular height a d, Fig. 
I, and mark it off from h to k, 
^^S' 3- Take the radius for 
the corners d C, Fig. i, and 
mark it off from h to i, Fig. 
3, also the radius dK; mark 
off from K to 1, drawing a line 
from i 1 to cut the line h K, 
which gives the slanting height 
and the radius required for 
striking the corners. Draw the 
lines I K and A C, Fig. 4, the 
same length as I K, Fig. 2, and 
the same distance apart as 1 to i, 
Fig. 3 ; prolong the lines A I 
and C K, Fig. 4, till Ac and 
C d equals to i m, Fig. 3. 
With radius d C, Fig. 4, using 
d and c as centers, strike the 
curves C F and A E, and, with 
a radius d K, Fig. 4, using the same centers, strike the 
curves K N and I M. Take the length of the large quar- 
Fig. 3. Fig. 4. » 



•-A 


\ . 1 


/ i 

7 1 

/ J 


/" 


y- — ' — s 


^ 




• d 




v 




/ 




ter-circle D H, Fig. 2, and dot off the same distance from 
C to F, Fig. 4; make A E equal to C F, and draw 



402 

lines from E and F to the centers c and d; draw E G 
and M O at right angles with E c. Take the dis- 
tance from A to C, and make the same distance from 
E to G and M to O, Fig. 3. Draw Ge parallel to E c. 
From G mark off point e, the same length as E to c, then, 
using e as center, strike the curves G B and O J, making the 
curve G B equal to A E ; draw line from B to center c, 
draw B T and J R at right angles to B e, taking the distance 
from B to S, Fig. 2, mark off the same distance from B to 
S and J to R, draw S R parallel with B e, and proceed in the 
same manner with the other end; adding on the laps, as 
shown, will make the pattern complete in one piece, being 
joined together at R S. 

PATTERN FOR T JOINTS. 

The following rule is a short and explicit method of ob- 
taining a pattern for T joints where different diameters are 
required. Suppose, for instance, a T is required whose diam- 
eters are 3 and 8 inches respectively. 

Divide the stretch-out, a a (which must be the exact 

length required to form up 
3 inches, allowing for 
locks as shown by dotted 
lines) in center as shown 
in the figure. Then 
divide each [half equally 
between 6-7 and 7-8 as 
shown by indefinite lines 
2 and 3. Now spread the 
compass to 8 inches, which 
is the diameter of the 
large pipe, set one point 
at 4, and the other at 
6; strike a circle to 7; 
then set compass on the 
other line at 5 and draw 
circle 7 to 8. Cut out the circles, and you have your pattern. 
The same rule applies to any diameter by spreading compass 
to the larger diameter and striking the circle on the stretch- 
out required for smaller diameter as shown above. 

Ireland has seventy-six collieries — nine in Ulster, seven 
in Connaught, thirty-one in Leinster, and twenty-nine in 
Munster. Very few of these are being worked. 



403 
^^OVEL DRAWING INSTRUMENT. 



A pair of dividers, or 
compasses, which will de- 
scribe any figure is shown 
herewith. It is of Eng- 
lish origin and very simple. 
The former, or template 
A, is affixed to one leg, 
and beats against the mid- 
leg B, around which, of 
course, revolves the work- 
ing leg. By this means 
the drawing pen or pencil 
is moved in and out in an 
obvious manner. Speci- 
mens of the work are 
shown in Fig. 2. 




The quality of wood is determined by the number of 
spirals. The best has about thirty " crinkles " in an inch. 




404 

TO DESCRIBE A PATTERN FOR A TAPERING 
SQUARE ARTICLE. 

Erect the Derpendicular line G E ; draw the line A B 

at right angle to 



G E ; make E F 
equal to the slant 
height, and draw 
the line C D par- 
allel to A B; make 
AB equal in 
length to one side 
^ of the base; make 
C D equal in 
length to one side 
of the top or 
smallest end, draw 
the lines A G and 
B G, cutting the 
points A C and 
BD, Gas a center 

with the radii G C and G A. Describe the arcs K M and J I; 

set off on the arc J I, J A, B H and H I equal in length to A B, 

and draw the lines J G, H G, and I G, also the lines J A, B H, 

H I, and K C, D L, L M. 
Edges to be allowed. 

THE PAINTING OF IRON. 

Cast and wrought iron behave very differently under ' 
atmospheric influences, and require somewhat different treat- 
ment. The decay of iron becomes very marked in certain 
situations, and weakens the metal in direct proportion to the 
depth to which it has penetrated, and, although where the 
metal is in a quantity this is not appreciable, it really becomes 
so when the metal is under three-fourths of an inch in thick- 
ness. The natural surface of cast iron is very much harder 
than the interior, occasioned by its becoming chilled, or by 
its containing a large quantity of silica, and affords an excel- 
lent natural protection, but, should this surface be broken, 
rust attacks the metal and soon destroys it. It is very desira- 
ble that the casting be protected as soon after it leaves the 
mold as possible, and a priming coat of paint should be 
applied for this purpose ; the other coats thought requisite 
can be given at leisure. In considering the painting of 
wrought iron, it must be noticed that, when iron is oxidized 
by contact with the atmosphere, two or three distinct layers 



1 



40S 

of scale form on the surface, which, unlike the skin upon 
cast iron, can be readily detached by bending or hammering 
the metal. It will be seen that the iron has a tendency to 
rust from the moment it leaves the hammer or rolls, and the 
scale above described must come away. One of the plans to 
])reserve iron has been to coat it with paint when still hot at 
the mill, and, although this answers for a while, it is a very trou- 
blesome method, which iron masters cannot be persuaded to 
adopt, and the subsequent cutting processes to which it is 
submitted leave many parts of the iron bare. Besides, a good 
deal of the scale remains, and, until this has fallen off or been 
removed, any painting over it will be of little value. The 
only effectual way of protecting wrought iron is to effect a 
thorough and chemical cleansing of the surface of the metal 
upon which the paint is to be applied ; that is, it must be 
immersed for three or four hours in water containing from 
one to two per cent, of sulphuric acid. The metal is after- 
ward rinsed in cold water, and, if necessary, scoured with 
sand, put again into the pickle, and then well rinsed. If it 
is desired to keep iron already cleansed for a short time before 
painting, it is necessary to preserve it in a bath rendered alka- 
line by caustic lime, potash, soda, or their carbonates. Treat- 
ment with caustic lime water is, however, the cheapest and 
most easy method, and iron which has remained in it some 
hours will not rust by a slight exposure to dampness. Hav- 
ing obtained a clean surface, the question arises, what paint 
should be used upon iron ? Bituminous paints, as well as 
those containing variable quantities of lard, were formerly 
considered solely available, but their failure was made appar- 
ent when the structure to which they were applied happened 
to be of magnitude, subjected to great inclemency of weather 
or to constant vibration. Recourse has, therefore, been had 
to iron oxide itself, and with satisfactory results. A pound 
of iron oxide paint, when mixed ready for use in the propor- 
tion of two- thirds oxide to one-third linseed oil, with careful 
work, should cover twenty-one square yards of sheet-iron, 
which is more than is obtained with lead compound. 

INVENTOR OF THE SCREW-AUGER. 

The screw-auger was invented by Thomas Garrett about 
lOO years ago. He lived near Oxford, Chester County, Pa^ 
The single screw-auger was invented by a Philadelphian, and 
it is said to be the only one used with any satisfaction in very 
hard woods, where the double screw-augers become clogged 



4o6 
RUST PROOF WRAPPING PAPER. 

This is made by sifting on the sheet of pulp, in process of 
manufacture, a metallic zinc powder (blue powder), about to 
the extent of the weight of the dried paper, the pulp sheet 
is afterward pressed and dried by running through the 
rolls and over the drying cylinders as usual. The zinc powder 
adheres to the paper, and is partly incorporated with it, the 
amount varying with the thickness and wetness of the pulp 
sheet. The paper may be sized with glue or starch and then 
dusted with the zinc powder, or the powder may be stirred 
into the size and then applied to the surface of the paper. 
If silver, brass or iron articles are wrapped in paper thus pre- 
pared, the affinity of the zinc for the sulphureted hydrogen 
(always present in the air), chlorine or acid vapors, will pre- 
vent those substances from attacking the articles inclosed in the 
paper. 

HIP-BATH IN TWO PIECES. 

Fig. I. 

* Draw^ the hip-bath 
full size, as it would 
look when finished, 
as in Fig. i. Extend 
line b, or the front, to 
same height as r, the 
highest part of the 
tub. Draw line d 
parallel with ^, or 
bottom of tub, until 
it intersects c and b. 
Strike the half-circle 
ff^ and divide into 
any number of equal 
parts, as i, 2, 3, 4, 
etc. (the more lines 
the better). For the 
points draw lines as 
shown in profile. 

Set dividers same as 
when the circles in 
Fig. I w^ere described, and strike the circles g g, and with a 
T square draw the perpendicular lines h h h h. Draw the line 
i parallel wath the lines h. Take the height^, same as from d 
to e, in Fig. i , and mark the line 7, Fig. : T)raw Hnes k k 
until they intersect at /. Set dividers at /, and strike the 




407 

circles m m. Draw line 7t, and, taking it as the center line, 
step each way one-fourth of the circumference, in as many- 
parts as in profile, i, 2, 3, 4, etc., and draw lines same as in 
Fig. I. 

Fig. 2. 




Take a pair of dividers, and from the bottom of tub in 
profile step on the lines, as from 9 to 9, 8 to 8, etc., making 
the line in Fig. 2 equal to the lines in profile, stopping where 
the curved line a crosses. A line traced through the dots 
will give the pattern, is the foot, which is drawn the same as 
the other, with the exception of drawing the lines through. 

A VERY durable black paint for out-of-door work, and for 
many other purposes, is made by grinding powdered charcoal 
in linseed oil, with sufficient litharge or drier. Thin for use 
with boiled linseed oil. 



4o8 
ROPE TRANSMISSION IN ENGLAND. 

According to the London £ngin^er, aHy-roipQ apparently 
was first used in England in 1863, by Mr. Ramsbottom, for 
driving cranes at Crewe. These ropes were ^ inch in diam- 
eter when new, of cotton, and weighing i J4, ounces per foot. 
They lasted about eight months, and ran at 5,000 per minute. 
The total lengths of the rope were 800 feet, 320 feet and 560 
feet. The grooves in the pulley were V-shaped, at an angle 
of 30°. The cord was supported every 12 feet or 14 feet by 
flat pieces of chilled cast iron. The actual power strain on 
the rope w^as about 17 pounds, and the ropes were kept tight 
by a pull of 109 pounds put on by a jockey pulley. Rope- 
gearing is now superseding belting and gearing in cotton 
mills. It has long been used in South Wales for driving 
helve hammers in tin-plate mills. The ropes are usually 
about 5X inches to 6% inches in circumference, of hemp. 
The diameter of the pulleys should be at least 30 times that 
of the rope, and the shafts should not be less than 20 feet 
apart. A 6^ -inch rope is about equivalent to a leather belt 
4 inches wide, running at the same speed — 3,000 feet per 
minute. Such a rope will transmit 25 horse-power. The 
coefficient of resistance to slipping of a rope in a groove is 
about four times that of an equivalent belt. 

HEAT-PROOF PAINTS. 

Steam pipes, steam chests, boiler fronts, smoke connec- 
tions and iron chimneys are often so highly heated that the 
paint upon them burns, changes color, blisters and often 
flakes off. After long protracted use, under varying circum- 
stances, it has been found that a silica-gi-aphite paint is well 
adapted to overcome these evils. Nothing but boiled linseed 
oil is required to thin the paint to the desired consistency for 
application, no dryer being necessary. This paint is applied 
in the usual manner with an ordinary brush. The color, of 
course, is black. But another paint, which admits of some 
variety in color, is mixed by making soapstone, in a state of 
fine powder, with a quick drying varnish of great tenacity 
and hardness. This will give the painted object a seemingly 
enameled surface, which is durable, and not affected by heat, 
acids, or the action of the atmosphere. When applied to 
wood it prevents rotting, and it arrests disintegration when 
applied to stone. It is wxll known that the inside of an iron 
ship is much more severely affected by corrosion than the 
outside, and this paint has proven itself to be a most efficient 
protection from inside corrosion. It is light, of fine grain. 



409 

can be tinted with suitable pigments, spread' easily, and 
takes hold of the fiber of the iron or steel quickly and tena- 
ciously. 

A cheap and effective battery can be made by dissolving 
common soap in boiling water and adding to it small amounts 
of bran and caustic potash or soda. This mixture, while 
warm, is poured in a jar containing a large carbon pole and 
an amalgamated zinc rod. When cold the battery " sets " 
after the manner of a jelly, and consequently will not readiW 
evaporate or spill over. 

NEW PROCESS FOR WIRE MANUFACTURE. 

A machine for cheapening and improving steel or iron 
wire has been invented, which is calculated to make a change 
in m^any branches of industry in which iron, steel, copper 
and brass wire are used. The invention, which ha:s just been 
patented, consists of a series of rolls in a continuous train, 
geared with a common driver, each pair of rolls having a 
greater speed than the pair preceding it, with an intervening 
friction clutch adapted to graduate the speed of the rolls to 
the speed of the wire in process of rolling. The entire pro- 
cess of manufacturing the smallest-sized wires from rods of 
one-half inch is done cold. The new process obviates the 
danger of unequal annealing, and of burning in the furnaces, 
and the wire is claimed to be more flexible and homogeneous 
than that produced by the common processes, and capable of 
sustaining greater longitudinal strain. It is, therefore, 
specially adapted for screws, nails, cables, pianofortes, and 
many other uses, and copper wire made by this process is 
claimed to be possessed of greatly increased electrical con- 
ductivity. 

SLEEPERS USED BY THE WORLD'S RAILROADS. 

According to the Moniteur Industriel^ the six principal 
railways of France use more than 10,000 wooden sleepers per 
day, or 3,650,000 per annum. As a tree of ordinary dimen- 
sions will only yield ten sleepers, it will be necessary to cut 
down 1,000 trees per day. In the United States the con- 
sumption is much greater, amounting to about 15,000,000 
sleepers per year, which is equivalent to the destruction of 
170,000 acres of forest. The annual consumption of sleepers 
by the railways of the world is estimated at 40,000,000. 
From these figures the rapid progress of disforestation will 
be understood, and it is certain that the natural growth can- 
not keep pace with it. 



4IO 

WEIGHTS OF CAST IRON PIPES. 

Weights, per foot, of Cast Iron Pipes in general use, 
including Socket and Spigot ends. 



V 

Dtametfir. 


Thickness. 


Weisfht 
per foot. 


IMameter. 


Thickness 


per f<K>l. 


:g inches. 


>4:l-iriicli: 


O'^ll.s. 


14 


nchcs 


1g Tnch. 


138 \hst,' 


<2 


'> 


^^ .* 


..•»:»' " 


-IC 




\ '- 


•8u ■- 


..^ 


^; 


.^ ..* 


14 . - 


IG 




% . - 


108 * 


A% 


^• 


K'f^'v" 


11 y 


16 




•k:;-.. 


129 * 


L« 


(S> 


* }. 


im '"": 


16 




%-^^''\ 


152 - 

\ 


:d 


-^ 


^ "r 


18 " 


IC 




1 


175 -^ 


■cfl 


* 


^ y- 


2.1 ' * 


18 




% : -.; 


114 -^ 


;^; 


«■ 


w^ir" 


16>$ - 


18 




5^ -; 


187 • 


; i 


e 


>6 


28 - 


18 




H . - 


161 - 


^<3 


« 


% ."> 


31- t" 


20 




^« ..' 


132 • 


V 


€■ 


51 r. 


25 - 


20 




u ■ ". 


160 • 


.:& 


«^ 


% " 


S3 ' * 


20 




?g .•. 


197 - 


6 


<« 


% 


421^ - 


20 




1 


216 - 


« 


« 


'4 * 


02 


24 




•55 ' •■. 


159 • 


; ^ 


« 


3i 


4» 


24 




' ^ •'; 


190 -^ 


'.'8 


^ 


^ .*• 


433^ - 


24 




•^./; 


224 •; 


-9 


." 


^8 ,V 


5G » 


24 




1 


257 * 


"s* 


A 


^4 


C8 " 


30 




^1-^ 


237 • 


lO 


f' 


r'.-^.- 


50 - 


30 




.^ •• 


27 7 - 


10 


* 


>6 ^ 


»4 - 


30 




1 * - 


319 " 


10 


<l 


% 


es 


30 




154 - 


360 « 


10 


6 


'4. .- 


80 - 


36 




K , - 


332 - 


1? 


9 


H 


67 


U 




t - 


881. - 


1? 


« 


5^ - 


82 -~ 


30 




IH > ' 


429 - 


12 


« 


% 


99 


36 




>i^:„.- 


479 * 


12 


'8 


« 


117 - 


48 




1 -^ 


612 ■ 


14 


«■ 


^ 


74 " 


48 




154 > 


684 " 


14 


« 


^ 


94 ^^ 


48 




\M - 


686 • 


14 


- 


% 


113 • 


48 




1J6 - 


?76 - .. 



411 

POINTS FOR BUILDERS. 

BY STEEL SQUARE. 

Never compete with a " botch " if you know he is favored 
by the person about to build. He will undercut and beat 
you every time. 

Favor the man who employs an architect. Under an 
honest architect you will have less friction, make more 
money, be better satisfied with your work, and give greater 
satisfaction to the owner than in working from plans fur- 
nished by a nondescript. 

In tearing down old work, be as careful as putting up 
new. - 

Old material should never be destroyed simply because it 
is old. ! 

When putting away old stuff, see that it is protected from 
rain and the atmosphere. 

It costs about fifteen per cent, extra to work up old ma- 
terial, and this fact should be borne in mind, as I have known 
several contractors who paid dearly for their " whistle " in 
estimating on working up second-hand material. 

These remarks apply to woodwork only. In using old 
brick, stone, slate and other miscellaneous materials, it is as 
well to add double price for working up. 

Workmen do not care to handle old material, and justly 
so. It is ruinous to tools, painful to handle, and very de- 
structive to clothing. 

In my experience I always found it pay to advance the 
wages of workmen — skilled mechanics — while working up 
old material. This encouraged the men and spurred them 
to better efforts. 

Sash frames, with sash weights, locks and trim complete, 
may be taken out of old buildings that are being taken down 
and preserved just as good as new by screwing slats and 
braces on them, which not only keep the frame square, but 
prevent the glass from being broken. 

Doors, frames and trims may also be kept in good order 
until used, by taking the same precautions as in window 
frames. 

Old scantlings and joists should have all nails drawn or 
hammered in before piling away. 

Counters, shelving, draws and other store-fittings should be 



412 

kindly dealt with. They will all be called for sooner or 
later. 

Take care of the locks, hinges, bolts, keys, and other hard- 
ware. Each individual piece represents money in a greater or 
less sum. 

Old flooring can seldom be utilized, though I have seen i^ 
used for temporar}^ purposes, such as fencing, covering of 
veranda floors, while finishing work on plastering, etc. As 
a rule, however, it does not pay to take it up carefully and 
preserve it. 

Conductor pipes, metallic cornices, and sheet metal work 
generally can seldom be made available a second time, though 
all is worth caring for, as some parties may use it in repairs. 

Sinks, wash-basins, bath-tubs, traps, heating appliances, 
grates, mantels and hearth-stones should be moved with care. 
They are always worth money and may be used in many 
places as substitutes for more inferior fixings. 

Marble mantels require the most careful handling. 

Perhaps the most difficult fixtures about a house to adapt a 
second time are the stairs. Yet, I have known where a 
shrewd contractor has so managed to put up new buildings 
that the old stairs taken from another building just suited. 
This may have been a " favorable accident," but the initiated 
reader will understand him. Seldom such accidents can 
occur. 

Rails, balusters and newels may be utilized much readier 
than stairs, as the rail may be lengthened or shortened to suit 
variable conditions. 

Gas fixtures should be cared for and stowed away in some 
dry place. Ihey can often be made available, and are easily 
renovated if soiled or tarnished. 

It is not wise to employ men to take do\^Ti buildings who 
who have no other qualities to recommend them than their 
strength. As a rule they are like bears — have more strength 
than knowledge, and the lack of the latter is often an ex- 
pensive desideratum. Employ for taking down the work 
good, careful mechanics, and do not have the work " rushed 
through. " Rushers of this sort are expensive. 

Never send old material to a mill to be sawed or planed. 
No matter how carefully nails, pebbles and sand have been 
hunted for, the saw or planer knives will most assuredly 
find some you overlooked; then there will be trouble at the 
mill. 

Have some mercy for the workman's tools. If it can be 
avoided, do not work up old stuff into fine work. If not 



413 

avoidable, pay the workman something extra because of in- 
jury to tools. 

Don't grum-ble if you do not get as good results from the 
use of old material as from new. The workman has much 
to contend with while working up old, nail-speckled, sand- 
covered material. 

RULES FOR ESTIMATING COST OF PLASTER- 
ING AND STUCCO WORK, 

PLASTERING. 

Plastering is always measured by the square yard for all 
plain work, and by the foot 'superficial for all cornices of 
plain members, and by foot lineal for enriched or carved 
moldings in cornices. 

By plain work is meant straight surfaces (like ordinary 
walls and ceilings), without regard to the style or quantity of 
finish put upon the job. Any paneled work, whether on 
walls or ceilings, run with a mold, would be rated by the 
foot superficial. 

Different methods of valuing plastering find favor in 
different portions of the country. The following general 
rules are believed to be equitable and ]ust to all parties: 

Rule I. — Measure on walls and ceilings the surface 
actually plastered without deducting any grounds or any 
openings of less extent than seven superficial yards. 

Rule 2. — Returns of chimney breasts, pilasters and all 
strips of plastering, less than 12 inches in width, measure as 
12 inches wide; and where the plastering is finished down 
upon the wash-board, surbase or wainscoting, add 6 inches to 
height of wall. 

Ride j>. — In closets, add one-half to the measurement ; 
or, if shelves are put up before plastering, charge double 
measurement. Raking ceilings and soffits of stairs, add one- 
half to the measurement. Circular or elHptical work, charge 
two prices ; domes or groined ceiUngs, three prices. 

Rule 4. — For each 12 feet interior work is done further 
from the ground than the first 12 feet, add five per cent. 
For outside work, add one per cent, for each foot the work 
is done above the first 12 feet. 

STUCCO WORK. 

Rule I. — All moldings, less than one foot girt, to be 
rated as one foot ; over one foot, to be taken superficial. 
When work requires two molds to run same cornice, add 
one-fifth. 



414 

Rule 2. — Yox each internal angle or miter, add one foot 
to length of cornice ; and each external angle add two feet. 
All small sections of cornice less than 12 inches long measure 
as 12 inches. For raking cornices add one-half. Circular or 
elliptical work, double price ; domes and groins, three prices. 

Rule J, — For enrichments of all kinds, charge an agreed 
price. 

Rule 4. — For each 12 feet above the first 12 feet from 
the ground, add five per cent. 

CHINESE CASH. 

A large number are engaged in molding, casting and fin- 
ishing the " cash '* used as coin all over China, Mexican 
dollars and Sycee silver being used in large transactions. The 
cash are made from an alloy of copper and zinc, nearly 
the same as the well-known Munn metal, and it takes 
about 1,000 of them to answer as change for a dollar, so 
minute and low do prices run in this country, of which I will 
only give one instance. The fare for crossing the ferry on the 
Peiho was only two cash, or one-fifth of a cent. 

DEEP SOUNDINGS NEAR THE FRIENDLY 
ISLANDS. 

Her Majesty's surveying ship Egeria, under the com- 
mand of Captain P. Aldrich, R. N., has, during a recent 
sounding cruise and search for reported banks to the south of 
the Friendly Islands, obtained two very deep soundings of 
4,295 fathoms and 4,430 fathoms, equal to five Eng- 
lish miles respectively, the latter in latitude 24 deg. 
37 min. S., longitude 175 deg. 8 min. W. , the other 
about twelve miles to the southward. These depths 
are more than 1,000 fathoms greater than any before 
obtained in the Southern Hemisphere, and are only 
surpassed, as far as is yet known, in three spots in the 
the world — one of 4,655 fathoms off the northeast coast of 
Japan, found by the United States steamship Tuscarora ; 
one of 4,475 fathoms south of the Ladrone Islands by the 
Challenger; and one of 4,561 north of Porto Rico, by the 
United States ship Blake. Captain Aldrich's soundings 
were obtained with a Lucas sounding machine and galvan- 
ized wire. The deeper one occupied three hours, and 
was obtained in a considerably confused sea, a specimen 
of the bottom being successfully recovered. Temperature 
of the bottom, 33.7 deg. Fahr. 



415 

SIZE AND WEIGHT OF FLAT-TOP CANS. 

The following table gives the size of the flat top cans and 
the amount of material required when galvanized iron is used 
in their construction. The table shows the net weight per 
can with iron from No. 27 gauge to No. 20 gauge. No al- 
lowance is made for seams, hoops, or solder. 



SIZE CANS. 








WEIGHT PER 


CAN. 












No. 


No. 


N 


0. 


No. 


No. 


No. 


No. 


No. 








27 


G. 


26 


G. 


25 


G. 


24 


G. 


23 


G. 


22 


G. 


21 


G. 


20 G. 


^• 






































6 


^ 




^ 




^ 




Xi 




i 


N 


j3 


N 


XI 


^^ 


i ^J 


% 


H-5 





H^l 





M 





h-3 





H^ 





HH 


-O 


A 





A 


1 


6^ 


6K 


I 


6 


I 


7 
























2 


8K 


8|i 


2 


2 


2 


4 
























3 


9 ^ 


iiK 


2 


13 


3 



























5 


loK 


13K 


3 


13 


4 


2 


4 


6 


4 


14 


5 


7 


5 


15 


6 


9 


7 6 


5 


iiK 


iiK 


3 


13 


4 


2 


4 


6 


4 


14 


5 


7 


5 


^5 


6 


9 


7 6 


6 


iiM 


13K 


4 


3 


4 


8 


4, 


12 


5 


6 


5 


15 


6 


9 


7 


2 


8 I 


8 


13K 


13K 


5 


4 


5 


10 


6 





6 


12 


7 


8 


8 


9 


9 




10 I 


10 


13K 


16K 


6 





6 


7 


6 


14 


7 


12 


8 


9 


9 


7 


10 


5 


II 9 


15 


15K 


9 


7 


15 


8 


8 


9 


I 


10 


3 


II 


5 


12 


7 


13 


9 


15 4 


20 


17M 


19K 


9 


8 


10 


2 


ID 


13 


12 


3 


13 


8 


H 


4 


16 


3 


18 4 


20 


16 


23 


9 


8 


10 


2 


10 


13 


12 


3 


13 


8 


14 


4 


16 


3 


18 4 


25 


18 


23 


II 





II 


12 


12 


8 


14 


1 


15 


II 


^7 


4 


18 


13 


21 2 


30 


18K 


26K 


12 


10 


13 


8 


14 


7 


16 


4 


18 





19 


13 


21 


10 


23 II 


35 


18K 


30M 


14 





15 





16 





18 





20 





22 





24 





27 


40 


18K 


34 


15 


9 


16 


10 


^7 


II 


19 


15 


22 


2 


24 


6 


26 


9 


29 14 


45 


19K 


35 


16 


10 


17 


13 


19 





21 


6 


23 


12 


26 


2 


28 


8 


32 I 


50 


20K 


35 


17 


II 


18 


15 


20 


3 


22 


12 


25 


4 


27 


13 


30 


5 


34 2 


55 


2XK 


36 


18 


14 


20 


6 


21 


10 


24 


3 


26 


7 


29 


12 


32 


7 


36 8 


60 


22 


37 


20 


3 


21 


10 


23 





25 


15 


28 


12 


31 


10 


34 


8 


38 13 


65 


22K 


38 


21 


3 


22 


9 


24 


3 


27 


4 


30 


5 


33 


6 


36 


5 


40 14 


70 


23 


40 


22 


10 


24 


4 


25 


13 


29 


I 


32 


5 


35 


8 


38 


12 


43 9 


75 


23K 


40 


23 


3 


24 


14 


26 


9 


29 


13 


33 


2 


36 


7 


39 


13 


44 13 


80 


24K 


40 


24 


7 


26 


3 


27 


15 


31 


7 


34 


15 


38 


6 


41 


15 


47 3 


85 


25 


40 


25 


I 


26 


14 


28 


10 


32 


7 


35 


^3 


39 


6 


43 





48 5 


90 


24K 


45 


26 


13 


28 


II 


30 


10 


34 


7 


38 


4 


42 




45 


15 


51 " 


95 


25 


45 


27 


7 


29 


6 


31 


5 


35 


4 


39 


3 


43 




47 





52 14 


100 


26 


45 


28 


13 


30 


14 


32 


14 


37 





41 


2 


45 




49 


6 


55 9 


125 


27K 


50 


33 


8 


35 


15 


38 


5 


43 


2 


47 


14 


52 


II 


V 


7 


64 10 


150 


29 


52K 


37 


I 


39 


12 


42 


6 


47 


II 


52 


15 


58 




63 


9 


71 9 


175 


30 


57M 


41 


9 


44 


8,47 


7 53 


6(59 


5 


65 


3 


71 


3 


80 I 


200 


30K 


64 


46 


6 


49 


12 


53 


3 


59 


H 


66 


6 


73 





79 


10 


89 10 



Mexican coal has l)een successfully used for making coke 
at Pittsburg. 



4i6 
THE CHICAGO AUDITORIUM. 

At a meeting of the Chicago Auditorium Association the 
president submitted his report, from which we take the fol- 
lowing: 

To the Stockholders of the Chicago Auditorium Associa- 
tion — Your great undertaking has progressed to a point when 
a recital of the condition of affairs, together with a brief his- 
tory of the project, will be of especial interest to yoiL 

Ground was broken and the work of tearing do\Mi build- 
ings was begun in Januan*, 1S87. The construction has been 
vigorously prosecuted from that time, the only delay occur- 
ring from difficulty in procuring granite, which necessitated 
the association taking possession of the quarries, the result of 
which was satisfactory. From the date of completion of the 
granite work, comprising the two stories of the sub-structure, 
all contracts have been thus far satisfactorily and promptly 
carried forward, and we feel that we have been exceptionally 
fortunate in the selection of all the contractors, especially so 
of the architects, who have faced most difficult and unprece- 
dented problems. 

This enterprise, like all large projects, has been a matter 
ot growth and development from its inception, both in mag- 
nitude and cost, and, in the judgment of your board, it has 
been in every iastance wise. It was originally contemplated 
by the projectors that a great pubhc hall and a hotel should 
be built on a site not including the corner of Wabash avenue 
and Congress street and the north lot of the Michigan avenue 
frontage, which were not then obtainable. From that your 
building has gro\Mi to cover the entire site now occupied — 
710 feet frontage, or an area of one and five-eighths acres. 
Strict fire-proof construction of the most approved kind was 
always contemplated, and it prevails throughout the entire 
structure ; so that under no circumstances can your building 
sustain more than slight superficial injury from fire. The 
tenth story has recently been changed to make it one foot 
higher, and one story has been added to the plans of the 
tower this summer. 

With the grandeur of the rising building developed the 
necessity of absolutely first-class treatment in details and 
interior finish. The hotel rooms wiU be finished in hard- 
wood throughout ; mosaic floors wiU be laid in the vestibule 
and lobby in the Auditorium and hotel. The grand stair- 
way will be marble, with bronze sides. An extra elevator 
was recently decided upon, making twelve in all, nine passen- 
ger and three freight. 



417 

A grand organ, costing about $50,000, was contracted 
for, and is being built probably at a loss to the contractor, 
the contract for which calls for the most complete and 
grandest instrument ever constructed, and which your board 
beheves will do much for musical education in this city, and 
add largely to the earnings of your Auditorium — more than 
ordinary interest on its cost. 

It was also determined to adopt the most approved and 
modern stage, with appointments similar to one at Buda- 
Pesth, Hungary, for which purpose Architect Adler was sent 
to Europe, and Mr. Bairstow, chief stage carpenter for 
McVicker's theater for many years, was employed, and 
accompanied him abroad. This will cost much more than 
the ordinary stage, but will be unequaled on either continent 
in its effects and operating economies, and it is regarded a 
judicious step by your board, as it constitutes, in theatre 
parlance, a permanent attraction. 

Then there are the devices of heavy ironwork for shutting 
off the galleries and part of the main balcony, lessening the 
cubic contents of our hall, thereby adapting it for many pur- 
poses for which otherwise it could not well be used. This 
has added considerably to cost of ironwork. 

A few statistics respecting your structure, about which so 
many questions are asked, maybe of interest to you. It com- 
prises five principal features — the auditorium, with its grand 
organ and stage; the hotel; the business front on Wabash 
avenue, containing seven stories and nine floors of rooms; the 
little^auditorium, or rehearsal hall; and the public observa- 
tory. To which might be added the cafe on the main floor 
on Congress street. The main building will be ten stories 
high, or 145 feet, the auditorium proper reaching the seventh 
story. I'he tower will be seventeen stories high, or 240 feet. 
The foundations under your buildings have been carefully and 
scientifically considered. Every square yard of the ground 
was first tested by heavy water-tanks, then horizontal dm- 
bers of varying lengths, one square, were laid permanently 
below the water-line, covering which 'is a heavy bed of con- 
crete, in which from one to four layers of 67-pound steel 
rails are imbedded. These, if placed in line, would reach ten 
miles in length. Where therails were insufficient in strength, 
steel I-beams were substituted for them. Upon these rails 
and beams the piers were constructed. The tower rests on 
a solid foundation, 100x67 feet, thus distributing the weight 
over a larger surface. The auditorium will contain 5,000 seats, 
including forty-two boxes. This capacity can .be largely 
increased for conventions by utilizing the stage space. The 



4i8 

hotel will occupy the entire Michigan avenue and Congress/ 
street fronts, and forty feet of Wabash avenue front, and 
will contain nearly 400 rooms. The main dining-room will 
be on the tenth floor of the east front, 175 feet long, over- 
looking the lake. There will be twelve elevators in all. 
The cost of the iron in the building is nearly $350,000, no 
portion of which will be visible. The number of bricks in 
the building is 15,000,000. 

The number of electric lights in the auditorium proper 
is 4,000 ; in the hotel and balance of the building, 4,600; 
making 8,600 in all. The electric current is generated by 
eleven dynamos and nine engines ; there will be eleven 
boilers, having a capacity of i,Soo horse-power; and 
twenty-one pumping engines to supply water for the 
elevators and other purposes, with a total hourly capacity of 
400,000 gallons. There are two distinct heating and lighting 
plants for the hotel and balance of building. The tower 
weighs 30,000,000 pounds, or 15,000 tons. There are over 
twenty-five miles of gas and water pipes. 

To calculate number of shingles for a roof, ascertain num- 
ber of square feet and multiply by 4; if 2 inches to weather, 
8 for 4/^ inches, and 7 1-5 if 5 inches are exposed. The 
length of rafter of one-third pitch is equal to three-fifths of 
width of building, adding projection. 

PAINTWORK. 

It may be useful to know that a gallon of paint will cover 
from 450 to 630 superficial feet of wood. On a well-painted 
surface of iron the gallon will cover 720 feet. In estimating 
painting to old work, the first thing to do is to find out the 
nature of the surface, whether it is porous, rough or smooth, 
hard or soft. The surface of stucco, for example, will take a 
great deal more paint than on of wood, much depending on 
the circumstance whether it has been painted, and what state 
the surface is in. We have known prices tendered for outside 
painting that have been seriously wrong, owing to the want 
of knowing the condition of the stucco work. A correct esti- 
mate of repainting woodwork cannot be made from the quan- 
tities only; a personal examination ought to be made in every 
case where there is much work to be done . A great many 
painters trust to the quantity; the consequence is, nothing is 
allowed to remove old paint, or for scouring, and the stopping 
of cracks. 

Then, there is painting and painting. It can be done well 
and artistically, or indifferently, and few trades allow of 
greater scamping. In first-class work, after the first two coats 



419 

have been put on, the paint, when dry, should be rubbed 
down with pumice-stone before the finishing coats are put on. 
Inferior painting is so common that it has a demoralizing effect 
on painters of the day. The quality of the material, especially 
the white lead, has much to do with the permanency. We 
find painting done on old work without any cleaning, stopping 
or even pumicing. A slovenly and inartistic class of grainers 
are also met with, who repaint and regrain on work that 
ought to be well rubbed with pumice-stone or sand-paper be- 
fore the first new coat is laid. 

For painting three* coats, the following materials are given 
tor lOo superficial feet of new work : Paint, eight pounds ; 
boiled linseed oil, three pints; spirits of turpentine, one pint; 
the work taking three men for one day. According to Saxton, 
forty-five yards of first coat, including stopping, will require 
five pounds of white lead, five pounds of putty^ one quart of 
oil. The same quantity of each succeeding coat will require 
the same allowance of white lead and oil. The best materials 
will last for seven years, but the ordinary painting seldom lasts 
three. 

THE ANNUAL RING IN TREES. 

The annual rings in trees exist as such in all timber grown 
in the temperate zone. Their structure is so different in 
different groups of timber that, from their appearance alone, 
the quality of the timber may be judged to some extent. 
For this purpose the absolute width of the rings, the regu- 
larity in width from year to year and the proportion of spring 
wood to autumn wood must be taken into account. Spring 
wood is characterized by less substantial elements, the ves- 
sels of thin-walled cells being in greater abundance, while 
autumn wood is formed of cells with thicker walls, which 
appear darker in color. In conifers and deciduous trees the 
annual rings are very distinct, while in trees like the birch, 
linden and maple the distinction is not so marked, because 
the vessels are more evenly distributed. Sometimes the 
gradual change in appearance of the annual ring from spring 
to autumn wood, which is due to the difference in its compo- 
nent elements, is interrupted in such a manner that a more or 
less pronounced layer of autumn wood can apparently be 
recognized, which again gradually changes to spring or sum- 
mer wood, and then gradually finishes with the regular autumn 
wood. This irregularity may occur even more than once in 
the same ring, and this has led to the notion that the annual 
Tings are not a true indication of age; but the double or 



420 

counterfeit rings can be distinguished by a practiced eye with 
the aid of a magnifying glass. These irregularities are due 
to some interruptions of the functions of the tree, caused by 
defoliation, extreme climatic condition or sudden changes of 
temperature. The breadth of the ring depends on the length 
of the period of vegetation; also when the soil is deep and rich,, 
and light has much influence on the tree, the rings will be 
broader. The amount of light, and the consequent development 
of foliage, is perhaps the most powerful factor in wood forma- 
tions, and it is upon the proper use of this that the forester 
depends for his means of regulating the development and 
quantity of his crop. * 

POINTERS FOR ARCHITECTS, BUILDERS AND 
WOOD-WORKERS. 

A box of window-glass contains fifty feet of glass, regard- 
less of size of sheets. 

African teak-wood outlasts any other kind of wood. It 
is the only wood found preserved in Egyptian tombs 4,000 
years old. It shrinks only " on end. " 

It is a common practice in France to coat the beams, the 
joists and the under side of the flooring of^ buildings with a 
thick coating of lime-wash as a safeguard against fire. It is 
a preventive of prime ignition, although it will not check a 
"^e when once under headway. 

Any beam, whether of wood or iron, is as much stronger 
■when placed on its edge as when on its side, as the width is 
greater than the thickness. Thus a stick or bar of iron one 
inch by three inches when used as a beam is three times as 
strong when placed on its edge as when on its side. This is 
true only within limits. It would not be true of a piece of 
boiler-plate, on account of the flexibility. 

Mortar made in the following manner will stand if used in 
almost all sorts of weather : One bushel of unslaked lime, 
three bushels of sharp sand ; mix i lb. of alum with one pint 
of linseed oil, and thoroughly mix this with the mortar when 
making it, and use hot. The alum will counteract the action 
of the frost on the mortar. 

A new system of building houses of steel plates is being 
introduced by M. Danly, manager of the Societe des Forges 
de Chateleneau, It has been found that corrugated sheets 
only a millimetre in thickness are sufficiently strong for build- 
ing houses several stories high, and the material used allows 
.of architectural ornamentation. The plates used are of the 



421 

finest quality, and as they are galvanized after they have been 
cut to the sizes and shapes required, no portion is left 
exposed to the action of the atmosphere. Houses so con- 
structed are very sanitary, and the necessary ventilating and 
heating arrangements can readily be carried out. #p 

Moisture-proof glue is made by dissolving i6 ounces of 
glue in 3 pints of skim milk. If a still stronger glue be want- 
ed, add powdered lime. 

Shellac and borax boiled in water produces a good stain 
for floors. 

Don't inclose the sink — no place in a kitchen is so 
much neglected. 

Porch floors should be of narrow stuff and the joints laid 
in white lead. 

Lime-water is fire-proof protection for shingles or any 
light v/ood-work. ^ 

Common brick absorb a pint of water each, and make a 
very damp house. 

The lowest -priced builder is not always the cheapest, as 
poor work will testify. 

A closet finished with red cedar shelves and drawers is 
death to moths and insects. 

Do not locate a furnace register next to a mantel — that 
is, if you wish to utilize the heat. 

Terra-cotta flue linings are a great improvement over 
the old, roughly plastered chimney. 

For basement flooring, oak is preferred to maple because 
it will stand dampness better. 

To properly select the colors applicable to the proper 
place, consult an educated painter. 

A ventilating flue from the kitchen into the chimney 
often does away with atmospheric meals. 

Stops to doors and windows should be fastened with 
roundhead screws, so as to be easily moved. 

It is better to oil floors than to paint them — a monthly 
rubbing will make them as good as new. 

Do not use one chimney-flue for two stove pipes — the 
draft of one will counteract that of the other. 

Do not finish windows to the floor — the circulation 
across the floor is one of the causes of cold houses. 

Ash-pits in cellars under fire-places and mantels save 
taking up ashes, for they may be raked down through a hop- 
per. 

Do not construct solid doors of two kinds of hardwood 
— the action of the atmosphere on one or the other will 
cause the door to warp. 



422 

HINTS ON VENTILATION. 

In ventilating — say, a bed-room — by means of the win- 
dow, what you may principally want is an upward-blowing 
current. Well, there are several methods of securing this 
without danger of a draught. 

1. Holes may be bored in the lower part of the upper 
sash of the window, admitting the outside air. 

2. Right across one foot of the lower sash, but attached 
to the immovable frame of the window, may be hung or tacked 
apiece of strong Willesden paper — prettily painted with 
flowers or birds, if you please. The window may then be 
raised to the extent of the breadth of this paper, and the air 
rushes upward between the two sashes. 

3. The same effect is got from sim.ply having a board 
about six inches wide and the exact size of the sash's breadth. 
Use this to hold the window up. 

4. This same board may have two bent or elbow tubes in 
it, opening upward and into the room, so that the air 
coming through does not blow directly in. The inside open- 
ings may be protected by valves, and thus the amount of in- 
coming current can be regulated. We thus get a circulating 
movement of the air, as, the window being raised, there is an 
opening between the sashes. 

5. In summer a frame half as big as the lower sash may 
be made of perforated zinc or wire gauze and placed in so as 
to keep the window up. There is no draught; and, if kept in 
position all night, then, as a rule, the inmate will enjoy re- 
freshing sleep. 

6. In addition to these plans, the door of every bed- 
room should possess, at the top thereof, a ventilating panel, 
the simplest of all being that formed of .wire gauze. 

In conclusion, let me again beg of you to value fresh air 
as you value life and health itself; while taking care not to 
sleep directly in an appreciable draught, to abjure curtains 
all round the bed. A curtained bed is only a stable for 
nightmares and an hotel for a hundred wonder-ills and ail- 
ments. 

INVENTION OF THE SCREW AUGER. 

The screw auger was invented by Thomas Garrett aDOut 
100 years ago. He lived near Oxford, Chester County, 
Pennsylvania. The single screw auger was invented by a 
Philadelphian, and it is said to be the only one used with any 
satisfaction in very hard woods where the double screw augers 
become clogged. 



423 

THE FORESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 

The total area of forest lands in the United States and 
Territories, according to the annual report of the Division 
of Forestry of the Department of Agriculture, is 465,795,000 
acres. The State which has the largest share is Texas, 
which is credited with 40,000,000 acres. Minnesota comes 
next with 30,000,000, then Arkansas with 28,000,000; and 
Florida, Oregon, California and Washington Territory are 
put down at 20,000,000 each. Georgia and North Carolina 
have each 18,000,000; Wisconsin and Alabama, each 
17,000,000; Tennessee, 16,000,000; Michigan, 14,000,000; 
and Maine, 12,000,000 acres. Taking the States in groups, 
the six New England States have, in round numbers, 
19,000,000 acres; four Middle States, 18,000,000; nine 
Western States, 80,000,000; four Pacific States, 53,000,000; 
seven 1'erritories, 63,000,000; and fourteen Southern States, 
233,000,000 acres, or almost precisely half of the whole forr 
est area of the country. 

Reviewing the figures given by the department, the 
Tradesman^ of Chattanooga, Tenn., makes the following 
instructive comment: " These statistics show that, while the 
process of denudation has been carried on to an unhealthy 
extreme in the Eastern, Middle and a few of the Western 
States, the forest area still remaining in this country is a 
magnificent one. If the estimates of the department are 
approximately correct, the timber lands of the country, 
exclusive of Alaska, cover an area equal to fifteen States the 
size of Pennsylvania. If proper measures are taken to pre- 
vent the rapid and unnecessary destruction of what is left of 
our forest domain, it should be equal to all requirements for 
an indefinite period. It is not yet a case of locking the 
stable after the horse is stolen, and never should be allowed 
to become so. With the adoption the policy of judicious 
tree planting in the prairie States, and a system of State or 
government reservations in the mountainous districts, which 
are the sources of the chief rivers of the country, the evil 
effects which have followed forest denudation in Europe and 
some portions of Asia would never exist here." 

TO FIND THE WEIGHT OF GRINDSTONES. 

.06363 times square of inches diameter, times thickness 
in inches = weight of grindstone in lbs. 

3. 1415926 — ratio of diameter to circumference of circle. 



I 



f 424 

ALTITUDE ABOVE THE SEA-LEVEL OF VARL 
OUS PLACES IN THE UNITED STATES. 



Portland, Me 185 

Concord, N. H 375 

Cleveland, O 645 

Detroit, Mich 595 

Mt. Washington 6,293 

Ann Arbor, Mich 890 

Boston, Mass 82 

Albany, N. Y 75 

New York, N. Y 60 

Buffalo, N. Y 580 

Philadelphia, Penn 60 

Pittsburg, Penn 935 

Baltimore, Ivld. : 275 

Washington, D. C 92 

Charleston, S. C 27 

Vicksburg, Miss 352 

New Orleans, La. to 

El Paso, Texas S-S^i 



Knoxville, Tenn 1,000 

Louisville, Ky 449 

Cincinnati, O 480 

Upper portion of city 588 

San Francisco, Cal 130 

Indianapolis, Ind 700 

Chicago, 111 581 

Milwaukee, Wis 590 

St. Anthony Falls, Minn.. 822 

Dubuque, la 1,400 

St. Louis, Mo 480 

Omaha, Neb 1,300 

Lawrence, Kan 803 

Fort Phil Kearney, Wy 6,000 

Yankton, Dak 1,900 

Fort Garland, Colo 8,365 

Salt Lake City, Utah 4,322 

Sacramento, Cal 22 



TABLE OF PRINCIPAL ALLOYS. 

A combination of zinc and copper makes bell metal. 

A combination of copper and tin makes bronze metal. • 

A combination of antimony, tin, copper and bismuth, makes britannia 
metal. 

A combination of copper and tin makes cannon metal. 

A combination of copper and zinc makes Dutch gold. 

A combination of copper, nickel and zinc, with sometimes a little iron 
and tin, makes German silver. 

A combination of gold and copper makes standard gold. 

A combination of gold, copper and silver, makes old standard gold. 

A combination of tin and copper makes gun m^tal. 

A combination of copper and zinc makes mosaic gold. 

A combination of tin and lead makes pewter. 

A combination of lead and a little arsenic, makes sheet metal. 

A combination of silver and copper makes standard silver. 

A combination of tin and lead makes solder. 

A combination of lead and antimony makes type metal. 

A combination of copper and arsenic makes white copper. 



HOW TO POLISH ZINC. 

We have been successful in polishing zinc with the follow- 
ing solution: To 2 quarts of rainwater add 3 oz, powdered 
rotten stone, 2 oz. pumice stone, and 4 oz.« oxalic acid. Mix 
thoroughly, and let it stand a day or two before using. Stir 
or shake it up when using, and, after using, polish the zinc 
with a dry woolen cloth or chamois skin. The more thor- 
oughly the zinc is rubbed the longer it will stay bright. 



425 
HOW TO MAKE A GOOD FLOOR. 

Nothing attracts the attention of a person wishing to rent 
or purchase a dwelling, store or office, so quickly as a hand- 
some, well-laid floor, and a few suggestions on the subject, 
though not new, may not be out of place. 

The best floor for the least money can be made of yellow 
pine, if the material is carefully selected and properly laid. ■ 

First, select edge-grain yellow pine, not too "fat," clear 
of pitch, knots, sap and splits. See that it is thoroughly 
seasoned, and that the tongues and grooves exactly match, so 
that, when laid, the upper surfaces of each board are on a 
level. Ihis is an important feature often overlooked, and 
planing-mill operatives frequently get careless in adjusting 
the tonguing and grooving bits. If the edge of a flooring 
board, especially the grooved edge, is higher than the edge 
of the next board, no amount of mechanicaHngenuity can 
make a neat floor of them. The upper part of the groove 
will continue to curl upward as long as the floor lasts. 

Supposing, of course, the sleepers, or joists, are properly 
placed the right distance apart, and their upper edges pre- 
cisely on a level, and securely braced, the most important 
part of the job is to " lay " the flooring correctly. This 
part of the work is never, or very rarely ever, done nowa- 
days. The system in vogue with carpenters of this day, of 
laying one board at a time, and " blind naihng," is the most 
glaring fraud practiced in any trade. They drive the tongue 
of the board into the groove of the preceding one, by 
pounding on the grooved edge with a naked hammer, mak- 
ing indentations that let in the cold air or noxious gases, if 
it is a bottom floor, and then nail it in place by driving a 
six-penny nail at an angle of about 50° in the groove. An 
awkward blow or two chips off the upper part of the groove, 
and the last blow, designed to sink the nail-head out of the 
way of the next tongue, splits the lower part of the groove 
to splinters, leaving an unsightly opening. Such nailing 
does not fasten the flooring to the sleepers, and the slanting 
nails very often wedge the board up so that it does not bear 
on the sleeper. We would rather have our flooring in the 
tree standing in the woods than put down that way. 

The proper plan is to begin on one side of the room, lay 
one course of boards with the tongue next to, and neatly 
fitted to, the wall (ci* studding, if a frame house), and be 
sure the boards are laid perfectly straight from end to end 
of the room and square with the wall. Then nail this course 
firmly to the sleepers, through and through, one nail near 



426 

each edge of the board on every sleeper, and you are readj 
to begin to lay a floor. Next, fit the ends and lay down 
four or six courses of boards (owing to their width). If the 
boards differ widely in color, as is often the case in pine, do 
not lay two of a widely different color side by side, but 
arrange them so that the deep colors will tone off into the 
lighter ones gradually. Push the tongues into the grooves 
as close as possible, without pounding with a hammer, or, if 
pounding is necessary, take a narrow, short piece of flooring, 
put the tongue in the groove of the outer board, and pound 
gently on the piece, never on the flooring board. Next, 
adjust your clamps on every third sleeper and at every end 
joint, and drive the floor firmly together by means of 
wedges. IDrive the wedges gently at the start, and each one 
equally till the joints all fill up snugly, and then stop, for, if 
driven too tight, the floor will spring up. Never wedge 
directly against the edge of the flooring board, but have a 
short strip with a tongue on it between the wedge and the 
board, so as to leave no bruises. Then fasten the floor to 
the sleepers by driving a flat-headed steel wire nail of suit- 
able size, one inch from either edge of every board, straight 
down into each sleeper. At the end-joints smaller nails may 
be used, two nails in board near the edges, and as far from 
the ends as the thickness of the sleeper will permit. Pro- 
ceed in this manner until the floor is completed, and you 
will have a floor that will remain tight and look well until 
worn out. 

Such minute directions, for so common and simple a job, 
sound silly, but are justifiable from the fact that there are so 
many alleged carpenters who either do not know how or are 
too lazy to lay a floor properly. 

GLUE FOR DAMP PLACES. 

For a strong glue, which will hold in a damp place, the 
following recipe works well : Take of the best and strongest 
glue enough to make a pint when melted. Soak this until 
solt. Pour off the water, as in ordinary glue-making, and 
add a little water if the glue is likely to be too thick. When 
melted, add three table-spoonfuls of boiled linseed oil. Stir 
frequently, and keep up the heat till the oil disappears, 
which may take the whole day, and perhaps more. If 
necessary, add water to make up for that lost by evaporation. 
When no more oil is seen, a tablespoonful of whiting is added 
and thoroughly incorporated wiih the glue. 



427 
MORTAR MAKING. 

Much depends on having mortar made on correct, if not 
scientific, principles. The durability, if not the actual safety, 
of a building is more or less affected by the kind of mortar 
that is put into it. We have seen brick buildings, and not 
very old ones either, from which the dry and hardened mor- 
tar could easily be picked in cakes from betw^een the bricks. 
The advantage of using such mortar is, that, when the 
building tumbles down, J there will be no trouble in picking 
from it the old bricks, preparatory to rebuilding. A brick 
wall, if put up with the right kind of mortar, will be solid 
and almost homogeneous, as likely to break through the 
middle of the bricks as at the joints. Such a building vdll 
never tumble down, except under great strain, and will with- 
stand a pretty severe earthquake shock. 

An old builder, of nearly forty years' experience in mak- 
ing mortar, writing upon the subject to a contemporary, 
very justly says : " The mere matter of slacking lime does 
not make mortar out of it. Lime and water alone will not 
make any better mortar than sand and water." He sug- 
gests the use of plenty of water in slacking the lime, so 
that, when it is run out of the box into the bed, it will not 
bake or burn, as it is liable to do, if not well watered. The 
mortar bed should be large and tight, so there will be no 
leakage of the lime water. The proportion should be 
about fifty yards of good sand to twenty-five barrels of lime, 
for the first mixing, which should be thoroughly done. The 
hair should be put into the lime before mixing in the sand. 
After the mortar has been mixed in the above proportions 
for ten days or more, if the amount of materials given have 
been used, twenty-five to fifty loads of sand may be added 
and worked in. It is said that the water that rises on a 
bushel of slaked lime, and where plenty of water has been 
used, if removed and put on a sharp sand, will make better 
stone than lime and sand mixed, showing that the water 
should be retained in the sand and lime while it is fresh, and 
that the mortar should be tempered in its own liquor. Of 
course, where smaller quantities are used, the proportion 
should be retained, both at the first mixing and in the sand 
added subsequently. 

« 

A pound of ten-penny cut nails will do as much work as 
two pounds of wire nails. Taking the average of all cut nails, 
they are worth nearly double as much as wire nails, from 
tests made at the Watertown Government Arsenal. 



428 

COST OF EXCAVATING AND HANDLING ROCK. 

The' average weight of a cubic yard of sandstone or con- 
glomerate, in place, is given as 1.8 tons, and of compact 
granite, gneiss, limestone or marble, 2 tons, or an average of 
1.9 tons, or 4,256 pounds. A cubic yard, when broken up 
ready for removal, increases about four-fifths in bulk, and 
vf4 of a cubic yard, 177 pounds, is a wheelbarrow load. 
Experience shows that, with wages at $1 per day of 10 
hours, 45 cents per cubic yard is a sufficient allowance for 
loosening hard rock. Soft shales and allied rocks may be 
loosened by pick and plow at a cost of 20 cents to 30 cents 
per cubic yard. The quarrying of ordinary hard rock re- 
quires from X pound to ^ pound and sometimes ^ pound 
of powder per cubic yard. Drilling with a churn driller 
costs from 12 to 18 cents per foot of hole bored. Upon 
these data, Mr. Rigly estimates the total cost, per cubic 
yard of rock in place, for loosening and removing by wheel- 
barrow (labor assumed at $1 per day of 10 hours), as fol- 
lows: When distance removed is 25 feet, total cost=$o.537; 
when 50 feet, $0,549; when 100 feet, $0,573; when 200 feet, 
$0,622; when 500 feet, $0,768; when 1,000 feet, $1,011; and 
when 1,800 feet, $1,401. This is exclusive of contractor's 
profit. 

When labor is $1.25 per day, add 25 per cent, to the cost 
prices given; when $1.50 per day, add 50 per cent, and so 
on. In hauling by cart, the cost of loading, which will be 
about 8 cents per cubic yard of rock in place, and the addi- 
tional expense of maintaining the road must be added. 
Allowing, then, 851 pounds as a cart-load, the total cost per 
cubic yard is estimated, when removed 25 feet, at $0,596; 
when 50 feet, $0,599; "^^'^^n 100 feet, $0,605; when 200 feet, 
$0,617; when 500 feet, $0,655; when 1,000 feet, $0,717; and 
when 1,800 feet, $0.94. 

IRON BRICK. 

It is reported that the German Government testing labor- 
atory for building materials has reported favorably on a new 
paving-block called iron brick. This brick is made by mix- 
ing equal parts of finely-ground clay, and adding 5 per cent, 
of iron ore. This mixture is moistened witji a solution of 25 
per cent, sulphate of iron, to which fine iron ore is added 
until it shows a consistency of 38 degrees Baume. It is then 
formed in a press, dried, dipped once more in a nearly con- 
centrated solution of sulphate of iron and finely gromid iron 
ore, and is baked in an oven for 48 hours in an oxidizing 
flame, and 24 hours in a reducing flame- 



429 

DRY ROT IN TIMBER. 

No wood which is liable to damp, or has at any time 
absorbed moisture, and is in contact with stagnant air, so 
that the moisture cannot evaporate, can be considered safe 
from the attack of dry rot. 

Any impervious substance applied to wood, which is not 
thoroughly dry, tends to engender decay ; floors covered 
with kamptulicon and laid over brick arching before the 
latter was dry ; cement dado to wood partition, the water 
expelled from dado in setting, and absorbed by the wood, 
had no means of evaporation. 

Woodwork coated with paint or tar before thoroughly 
dry and well seasoned, is liable to decay, as the moisture is 
imprisoned. 

Skirtings and wall paneling very subject to dry rot, and 
especially window backs, for the space between woodwork 
and the wall is occupied by stagnant air ; the former absorbs 
moisture from the wall (especially if it has been fixed before 
the wall was dry after building), and the paint or varnish 
prevents the moisture from evaporating into the room. 
Skirting, etc., thus form excellent channels for the spread of 
the fungus. 

Plaster seems to be sufficiently porous to allow the 
evaporation of water through it ; hence, probably, the space 
between ceiling and floor is not so frequently attacked, if 
also the floor boards do not fit very accurately and no oil 
cloth covers the floor. 

Plowed and tongue floors are disadvantageous in cer- 
tain circumstances, as when placed over a space occupied 
by damp air, as they allow no air to pass between the boards, 
and so dry them. 

Beams may appear sound externally and be rotten 
within, for the outside, being in contact with the air, 
becomes dryer than the interior. It is well, therefore, to 
saw and reverse all large scantling. 

The ends of all timber, and especially of large beams, 
should be free (for it is through the ends that moisture 
chiefly evaporates). They should on no account be imbed- 
ded in mortar. 

Inferior and ill-seasoned timber i« evidently to be 
avoided. 

Whatever insures dampness and lack of evaporation is 
conducive to dry-rot, that is to say, dampness arising from 
the soil ; dampness arising from walls, especially if the 
damp-proof course has been omitted ; dampness arising 



430 

from use of salt sand ; dampness arising from drying of mor- 
tar and cement. 

Stagnation of air resulting from air grids getting blocked 
with dirt or being purposely blocked through ignorance. 
Stagnation may exist under a floor although there are grids 
in the opposite walls, for it is difficult to induce the air to 
move in a horizontal direction without some special means 
of suction. Corners of stagnant air are to be guarded 
against. 

Darkness assists the development of fungus ; whatever 
increases the temperature of the wood and stagnant air 
(within limits) also assists. 

PAINTING FLOORS. 

Colors containing white lead are injurious to wood floors, 
rendering them softer, and more liable to be worn away. 
Paints containing mineral colors only, without white lead, 
such as yellow ochre, sienna or Venetian or Indian red, have 
no such tendency to act upon the floor, and may be used with 
safety. This quite agrees with the practice comjnon in this 
country, of painting floors with yellow ochre or raw 
umber or sienna. Although these colors have little body, 
compared with the white-lead paint, and need several coals, 
they form an excellent and very durable covering for the 
floor. Where a floor is to be varnished, it is found that var- 
nish made by drying lead salts is nearly as injurious as lead 
paint. Instead of this, the borate of manganese should be 
used to dispose the varnish to dry, and a recipe for a good 
floor varnish is given. According to this, two pounds of pure 
white borate of manganese, pounded very fine, are to be 
added, little by little, to a saucepan containing ten pounds of 
linseed oil, which is to be well stirred, and gradually raised to 
a temperature of three hundred and sixty degrees Fahren- 
heit. Meanwhile, heat one hundred pounds linseed oil in a 
boiler until bubbles form ; then add to it slowly the first 
liquid, increase the fire, and allow the whole to cook for 
twenty minutes, and finally remove from the fire, and filter 
v.'hile warm through cotton cloth The varnish is then 
ready, and can be used immediately. Two coats should be 
used, and a more brilliant surface may be obtained by a final 
coat of shellac. 



The railroads consume half of the coal used in this country. 



431 
COLD WATER SUPPLY PIPES. 

The following matter, in catechetical form, illustrates 
the teachings of the New York Trades Schools in this con- 
nection : 

I. — What size should the pipe from the street main to 
the house be ? 

A. — The supply pipes of New York average about iX ^^ 
i}i inches in diameter. 

2. — What material is used for this pipe in New York ? 

A. — Mostly lead pipes. 

3. — What other materials, besides lead, are used for sup- 
ply pipes ? 

A. — Galvanized iron, brass, and tin-lined lead pipes. 

4. — How is iron used ? 

A. — Plain, galvanized, and lined with tin or glass. 

5. — What are the advantages and disadvan^ges of lead 
pipes ? 

A. — Advantages are its ductility, strength, and easiness 
of working, also its durability. Disadvantages are danger 
of poisoning the water, and of being eaten by rats. 

6. — What are the advantages and disadvantages of plain 
iron pipe ? 

A. — Advantages are cheapness, easiness of putting to- 
gether, and freedom from poisoning. Disadvantages are 
rusting, and filling up of pipes. 

7.- What are the advantages and disadvantages of tin- 
lined pipes ? 

A. — Advantage is in its freedom from poisoning water. 
Disadvantage in not being durable for hot-water pipes. 

8. — What are the advantages and disadvantages of glass- 
lined pipe ? 

A. — Glass-lined pipe makes an excellent water pipe, but 
is liable to break in working and putting up. 

9. — What are the advantages and disadvantages of gal- 
vanized iron pipe ? 

A. — Galvanized iron pipe is cheap and free from rust, 
but some water decomposes zinc, and its salts are poison- 
ous. 

10. — What are the advantages and disadvantages of 
brass pipe? 

A. — When brass pipe is lined with tin it is very light 
and strong; but, when the tin wears off, there is danger of 
poisoning the water. 

II. — What are the advantages and disadvantages of 
block-tin pipe ? 



A. — They are not durable for hot water, and are very 
expensive. 

12. — What are the advantages and disadvantages of tin- 
lined lead pipe ? 

A. — They are not durable. 

13. — In using tin-lined lead pipe, what must be guarded 
against? 

A. — The lining must not be disturbed or the tin melted 
out. 

14. — How should the supply pipe be connected with 
street mains? 

A. — By a brass tap and coupling. 

15. — How should a lead pipe be joined to an iron pipe? 

A. — By a brass spud or soldering nipple. 

16. — Should the supply pipe be so arranged that it can 
Tdc emptied? and why? 

A. — Yes. To prevent freezing, and the waterjfrom stag- 
nating in the pipe. 

17. — What precaution can be taken against freezing if 
the main is within three feet of surface? 

A. — By bending the pipe a few feet lower at the main, 
and continuing the pipe at the lower level. 

18. — In crossing an area with a supply pipe, what precau- 
tion should be taken? 

A. — Cover the pipe with felt, or put it in a box filled with 
saw-dust, to prevent freezing? 

19. — What is gained by putting a supply pipe from street 
main to house in a larger iron pipe? 

A. — The air in a larger iron pipe protects the supply, 
and steam can be injected to thaw pipe if it freezes. 

20. — How can water supply be increased after service 
pipe enters house? 

A. — The flow of water can be greatly assisted by using a 
larger pipe after entering the house. 

21. — Is there any way to arrange a pipe so that drawing 
water from a lower floor wall not stop or retard the flow 
from upper floors ? 

A. — The best way would be to proportion branches on 
different floors according to pressure ; the smaller the press- 
ure the larger the outlet. 

22. — Supposes, three-story house had a ^ tap from main 
to house, and connected from this tap to top of boiler with 
a iX iiich pipe ; what size should the branch pipes to base- 
ment fixtures be ? 

A. — One-half to five-eighths should be large enough. 

23. — The parlor floor contains a pantry sink, a wash- 



433 

basin and a water-closet ; how large should the supply pipe 
from basement to parlor floor be ? 

A. — About I inch in diameter. 

24. — How large the branch pipes to fixtures ? 

A. - ^ to ^ in diameter. 

25. — The second floor contains a bath, two water-closets 
and five wash-basins ; how large should the pipe from par- 
lor to second floor be ? 

A.— About I inch in diameter. 

26. — How large should the pipe from basement to tank 
be? 

A. — About iX inch in diameter. 

27. — In a building of six or more stories in height with 
cold water supply drawn from tank on upper floors, does 
any difficulty occur ? 

A. — Yes. On the lower floors the pressure is too great. 

28. — How can it be remedied ? -- 

A. — By diminishing branch pipes to give a proportional 
supply. 

29. — Can supply pipe be so arranged that water can be 
drawn from the main or from tank? 

A. — Yes. By using a special stop-cock for the pur- 
pose. 

30. — What precautions should be taken to prevent pipes 
freezing ? 

A. — By placing as far from frost as possible, and by 
proper boxing and felting. 

31. — Why are pipes liable to burst when they freeze ? 

A. — The expansion expands the pipes, and, consequently, 
they burst. 

32. — What is the expanding pressure of freezing water? 

A. — Thirty thousand pounds to the square inch. 

33. — What means are taken to thaw out a service-pipe ? 

A. — The application of heat externally or steam and hot 
water internally is about the best means. 

34. — Is the external application of heat objectionable 
with iron pipes ? 

A. — Yes ; as the sudden contraction is as dangerous as 
the expansion. 

35. — In carrying supply pipes across a floor, what pre- 
caution can be taken to protect ceiling below from a leak ? 

A. — By putting pipes in a box lined with lead, and hav- 
ing a waste, or tell-tale, pipe at lowest point. 

36. — Does fresh mortar injure lead pipes ? 

A. — As the lime in fresh mortar is corrosive and forms a 
soluble compound, it is an injury to lead pipes. 



434 
PRESSURES ON TANKS. 

Q. — In a full cubical tank, what is the pressure on any- 
vertical side ? 

A. — One-half the weight of the contents. 

Q. — In a full conical vessel standing on its base, what is 
the pressure on the base ? 

A. — Three times the weight of the contents. 

Q. — In a hollow sphere, full of liquid, what is the press- 
ure on the surface of the lower half ? 

A. — Three times the weight of contents. 

TINNING BY SIMPLE IMMERSION. 

Argentine is a name given to tin precipitated by gal- 
vanic action from its solution. This material is usually ob- 
tained by immersing plates of zinc in a solution of tin, con- 
taining 6 grammes (about 90 grains) of the metal to the litre 
(0.88). In this way tin scrap can be utilized. To apply the 
argentine according to M. P. Marino's process, a bath is 
prepared from argentine and acid tartrate of potash, ren- 
dered soluble by boric acid. Pyrophosphate of soda, chlo- 
ride of ammonium, or caustic soda may be substituted for the 
acid tartrate. The bath being prepared, the objects to be 
coated are plunged therein, first having been suitably pickled 
and scoured, and they may be subjected to the action of an 
electric current. But a simple immersion is enough. The 
bath for this must be brought to ebullition, and the objects 
of copper or brass, or coated therewith, may be immersed 
in it. 

HOW TO FIND THE AMOUNT OF STEAM-PIPE 
REQUIRED TO HEAT A BUILDING WITH 
STEAM. 

Rule for finding the superficial feet of steam-pipe required 
to heat any building with steam : One superficial foot of 
steam-pipe to six superficial feet of glass in the windows, or 
one superficial foot of steam-pipe for every hundred square 
feet of wall, roof or ceiling, or one square foot of steam-pipe 
to eighty cubic feet of space. One cubic foot of boiler is 
required for every fifteen hundred cubic feet of space to be 
warmed. One horse-power boiler is sufficient for forty 
thousand cubic feet of space Five cubic feet of steam, at 
seventy-five pounds pressure to the square inch, weighs one 
pound avoirdupois. 



435 

SEASONING TIMBER. 

Timber, when freshly cut, contains from thirty-seven to 
forty-eight per cent, of water, the kind, the age, and the 
season of vegetation governing the percentage. Older wood 
is generally heavier than young wood, and the weight of 
wood cut in the active §eason is greater than that of wood 
cut in the dormant season. Water in wood is not chemically 
combined with the fiber, and, when exposed to the atmos- 
phere, the moisture evaporates. The wood becomes lighter 
until a certain point is reached in the drying-out process, 
after which it gains or loses in the weight according to the 
variations in the moisture and temperature of the atmos- 
phere. Following is a table showing the percentage in 
weight of water in round woods from young trees at different 
lengths of time after cutting : 
Kind of Wood. 6 mos. 12 mos. 18 mos; 24 mos. 

Beech 30.44 23.46 18.60 19-95 

Oak 32.71 26.74 23.25 20.28 

Hornbeam. ^. .. .27.19 23.08 20.60 18.59 

Birch 39.72 29.01 22.73 19.52 

Poplar 40.45 26.22 17.77 17.92 

Fir 33.78 16.87 15.21 18.00 

Pine 41.70 18.67 15.63 17.42 

According to these figures, taken from actual trials, there 
is nothing gained by keeping wood longer than eighteen 
months, so far as drying or seasoning is concerned. In the 
woods mentioned, there appears to be an actual loss in 
some, and only a slow gain in others after that length of 
time. The pine, fir, and beech gained moisture, and the 
others in the list lost only very slightly after the eighteen 
months had passed. 

PROPOSED GREAT ENGINEERING FEAT. 
A gigantic scheme has been proposed, by which the can- 
ons of the Rocky Mountains are to be dammed up from the 
Canadian boundary to Mexico, in order to form vast reser- 
voirs of water to be used in the irrigation of arid lands, and so 
prevent floods in the lower Mississippi. Major Powell, direc- 
tor of the national survey, estimates that at least 150,000 
square miles of land might thus be reclaimed — a territory 
exceeding in extent one-half of the land now cultivated in the 
United States. The plan is to build dams across all the can- 
ons in the mountains large enough and strong enough to hold 
back the floods from heavy rains and melting snows, and then 
let the water down as it may be needed upon the land to be 
reclaimed. 



43^ 

vJxV THE USE OF GLUE. 

in order to use glue successfully, says a writer of experi- 
ence, a great deal of experience is required, and it is useless 
for the amateur to try it ; he will only spoil the work. So, 
unless the workman is well experienced in the treatment 
and the application of the glue, he had better leave it alone 
entirely. To render the operation successful, two consider- 
ations must be taken into account: First, to do good glu- 
ing requires that the timber be well seasoned and thoroughly 
dry, taking care that the joints to be glued are well fitted. 
Second, in preparing the parts to be glued, each piece should 
be scratched with a sharp file or piece of a fine saw, to 
make the glue hold better. The shop should be kept at a 
proper temperature, and the material heated so that the 
glue may flow quite freely. Having the glue properly pre- 
pared, spread it evenly upon the parts so as to fiU up the 
pores and grain of the wood, then put the pieces together 
as rapidly as possible, using clamps and thumb-screws to 
draw the joints tightly together ; all superfluous glue should 
be washed off, taking great care not to use too much water, 
or allowing any to remain on the pieces put together. The 
greatest cause of bad gluing is in using inferior glue and 
in laying it on unevenly. Before using a new brand of glue 
it is safer to test it by gluing a piece of whitewood and 
ash together, clamping it with a thumb-screw, and, when 
dry, insert a chisel where it is put together, and, if the joint 
separates where it is glued, it is not fit to use, and should be 
rejected at once. The wood should split or give way rather 
than the substance promoting adhesion. This is a practi- 
cal and severe test, but it will pay to apply it, in the sta- 
bility of the work. 

GLUE PAINT FOR KITCHEN FLOOR. 

For a kitchen floor, especially one that is rough and 
uneven, the following glue paint is recommended : To three 
pounds of spruce yellow add one pound, or two pounds if 
desired, of dry white lead, and mix well together. Dissolve 
two ounces of glue in one quart of w^ater, stirring often until 
smooth and nearly boiling. Thicken the glue water after the 
manner of mush, until it will spread smoothly upon the floor. 
Use a common paint brush and apply hot. This will fill all 
crevices of a rough floor. It will dry soon, and when dry 
apply boiled linseed oil with a clean brush. In a few hours 
it will be found dry enough to use by laying papers or mats to 
step on for a few days. When it needs cleaning, use hot suds. 



437 
EFFECT OF THE ATMOSPHERE ON BRICKS. 

Atmospheric influence upon bricks, tiles and other build- 
ing materials obtained by the burning of plastic clays, 
depends very much on the chemical composition of the 
clays and on the degree of burning. Thus, any distinct por-= 
tions of limestone present in them would be converted 
into quicklime in the kiln, and, when the bricks were thor- 
oughly wetted, would expand in such a manner as to disin- 
tegrate the mass. If the clay used is too poor — that is to 
say, if it contains an excess of sand — the bricks will not 
become sufficiently fused, and, upon exposure to the weather, 
their constituent parts will separate. It is to be observed 
that in bricks, as in stones, decomposition does not take 
place with the greatest rapidity where constant moisture 
exists, but rather where, from the absence of^capillarity, 
variable according to the moisture furnished by the atmos- 
phere, either directly or indirectly, a series of alternations 
of dryness and humidity prevail. 

The foundation walls of buildings do not in fact suffer so 
much in the parts immediately upon the ground as they do 
in those at a height of from one'to three feet, according to the 
permeability of the materials employed. When bricks 
made of clay containing free silica are laid in mortar, and 
moisture can pass freely from either one or the other, it 
may be observed that the edges in contact become harder 
than the body of the bricks. No doubt this arises from 
the formation of a silicate of lime and alumina, the lime 
being furnished by the passage of the water through the bed 
of the mortar. 

THE GREAT EIFFEL TOWER. 
One of the principal features of interest at the Paris Ex- 
position is the Eiffel tower. It is constructed of iron, and rises 
f^ a height of 984 feet. As the greatest height yet reached 
in any structure is that of the Washington monument, 550 
feet, some idea can be formed of the great distance upward 
that this tower will go. This tower weighs 7,000 tons, and 
cost 4,500,000 francs. One object of its construction is to 
light the Exposition grounds. The tower will be supplied 
with elevators, which will land passengers 97 1 feet from the 
earth. There is talk of supplying it with electric lights of 
19,000,000 candle power. Four such towers, with a capacity 
of 50,000,000 each, it is thought, would light the whole city 
of Paris. Perhaps this tower will decide the question 
whether or not it is possible to light an entire city from a 
few .points, if not from one. 



438 
ROT IN TIMBER. 

The principal cause of the lack of proper durability of 
timber in buildings is the porosity of the lumber used and 
the consequent liability to absorb moisture. Coarse-grained 
woods of quick growth are more liable to this defect than 
those of tough fiber and slow growth. When timber be- 
comes repeatedly wet and dry, it becomes brittle and weak- 
ened, or 'Uts nature is gone," as the workmen say. Rot is 
of two kinds, wet and dry, and moisture is the essential 
element in both cases, the only difference being that in the 
first the moisture is quickly evaporated by exposure to the 
air, and in the latter, when there is no exposure, it produces 
a species of fungus and minute worms which eat in between 
the fibers, and gradually produce disintegration. Sap wood 
is more perishable than heart wood, for the former contains 
more of the saccharine principle, and renders the wood liable 
to a fermentive action. 

The prevalent practice of confining unseasoned timber by 
building it close into walls, thus preventing the ready evap- 
oration of whatever moisture happens to get to it, is a bad 
one. The ends of the wood, especially, should be sur- 
rounded by an open-air space, however small, as it is the ends 
where the dampness is most liable to penetrate into the 
structure of the wood. It is a well-known fact that a log of 
green timber, when kept immersed, will become water-logged 
and sink, and, of course, become unfit for use afterward. 
The same process, only slower, applies when it is exposed 
to damp with no facilities for rapid evaporation. Quick- 
lime, when assisted by moisture, is a powerful aid in hasten- 
ing; decomposition, in consequence of its affinity for carbon. 
Mild lime has not this effect, but mortar, as used in build- 
ings, requires a considerable length of time to become inert 
in its action as a corroding agent ; therefore bedding timber 
in damp mortar is very injurious, and often the cause of un- 
accountable decay. Wood, in a dry state, does not seem to 
be injured by contact with dry lime, it being rather a preser- 
vative. An example of this is shown in lathing covered with 
plaster, which often retains its original strength when sur- 
rounding timbers are completely rotted away. 

Anything that will hinder the absorbing process will ex- 
tend the life of a wood, such as a coating of tar, paint, or a 
charring of the surface. The latter method will prove the 
most effective, if sufficiently deep, as the charred coating is 
practically indestructible, closes the pores of the wood, and 
will prevent the bursting into flame in case of a fire. If all 



439 

joists, girders and inside beams of every kind were treated 
to a superficial charring process, it would tend, in conjunc- 
tion with fire-proof paint applied to outside finishing work, 
to make a building as nearly fire-proof as wood in any con- 
dition will allow. 



NUMBER OF BRICKS REQUIRED TO 
CONSTRUCT A BUILDING. 



Superficial 
feet of 


Number of Bricks to Thickness of 


Wall. 


4 Inch 


8 Inch 


12 Inch 16 Inch 

1 


20 Inch 


24 Inch 


I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

lO 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

200 

300 

400 


7 
15 
23 
30 

38 
45 

60 

6S 

75 
150 
225 
300 
375 
450 

P^ 
600 

675 

750 

1,500 

2,250 

3,000 


15 
30 

45 
60 

75 

90 

105 

120 

135 
150 
300 

450 
600 

750 

900 

1,050 

1,200 

1,350 
1,500 
3,000 
4,500 
6,000 


22 

il 

90 
113 
135 

158 
180 
203 
225 
450 

675 

900 

1,125 

1.350 

1,800 
2,025 
2,250 
4,500 
6,750 
9,000 


29 
60 

90 
120 

\^ 

210 

240 

270 

300 

600 

900 

1,200 

1,500 

1,800 

2,100 

2,400 

2,700 

3,000 

6,000 

9,000 

12,000 


37 

75 

113 

150 

188 

225 

263 

300 

338 

375 

750 

1,125 

1,500 

1,875 
2,250 
2,625 
3,000 

3,375 

3,750 

7,500 

11,250 

15,000 


45 
90 

\l 

225 
270 

360 

405 

450 

900 

1,350 

1,800 

2,250 

2,700 

3,150 

3,600 

4,050 

4,500 

9,000 

13,500 

18,000 



Sycamore is being introduced quiteextensively for interior 
finish. When properly selected it makes a very handsome 
finish. Care should be taken in securing it, as it is nearly as 
bad to warp as elm. It should be well backed with pine, 
spruce or hemlock. 



440 
FIRE-PROOFING WOODWORK. 

A door of the right construction to resist fire should be 
made of good pine, and should be of two or more thicknesses 
of matched boards nailed across each other, either at right 
angles or at forty-five degrees. If the doorway be more 
than seven feet by four feet, it would be better to use three 
thicknesses of same stuff; in other words, the door should 
be of a thickness proportioned to its area. Such a door 
should always be made to shut into a rabbet, or flush with 
the wall when practicable ; or, if it is a slide door, then it 
should be made to shut into or behind a jamb, which would 
press it up against the wall. Both sides of the door and its 
jambs, if of Avood, should then be sheathed with tin, the 
plates being locked at joints, and securely nailed under the 
locking with nails at least one inch long. No air spaces 
should be left in a door by paneling or otherwise, as the door 
will resist best that has the most solid material in it. In 
most places it is much better to fit the door upon inclined 
metal sliders than upon hinges. 

This kind of door may be fitted with automatic appliances, 
so that it will close of itself when subjected to the heat of a 
fire ; but these appliances do not interfere with the ordinary 
methods of opening and shutting the door. They only 
constitute a safegard against negligence. The construction 
of shutters varies fron; that of doors only in the use of 
thinner wood. 

Under this heading may be classed all the doors of iron, 
whether sheet, plate, cast or rolled, single, double or hollow, 
plain or corrugated, none of which are capable of resisting 
fire for any length of time ; also wooden doors covered with 
tin on one side only, or covered with zinc, which melts at 
700 degrees Fahrenheit, 

The wooden door covered with tin only serves its pur- 
pose when the wood is wholly encased in tin, put on in such 
a way that no air, or the minimum of air, can reach the 
wood when it is exposed to the heat of a fire. Under these 
conditions, the surface of the wood is converted into char- 
coal ; charcoal being a non-conductor of heat, itself tends to 
retard the further combustion of the wood. But, if air 
penetrates the tin casing in any measure, the charcoal first 
made, and then the wood itself, are both consumed, and the 
door is destroyed. In like manner, if a door is tinned only 
only on one side, as soon as the heat suffices to convert the 
surface of the wood under the tin and next to the fire into 
charcoal, the oxygen reaches it from the outside, and the 
door is of little m9re value than a thin door of iron, or plain 
wooden door. 



441 

DIMENSIONS OF THE MOST IMPORTANT OF 
THE GREAT CATHEDRALS. 

Length, Breadth, Height, 

feet. feet. feet. 

St. Peter's 613 450 438 

St. Paul's 500 248 404 

I>uomo 555 240 375 

Notre Dame 416 153 298 

Cologne 444 283 

Toledo 395 178 

Rheims 480 163 117 

Rouen 469 146 465 

Chartres 430 150 373 

Antwerp 384 171 402 

Strasbourg 525 195 465 

Milan 477 186 - 360 

Canterbury 530 154 235 

York 524 261 

Winchester 554 208 

Durham ,.... 411 170 214 

Ely 617 178 

Salisbury. . , 473 229 279 

SUGGESTIONS FOR COLORS. 

In forms, tints, and colors the ocean depths supply valu- 
able decorative suggestions. On silverware the iridescent 
hues of tropical shells are skillfully reproduced, and on 
ceramic ware their fascinating combinations of tints and the 
gradations of these shells have been too much hidden away in 
cabinets, instead of being studied by designers for their ele- 
gant curvatures and attractive colors. The delicate and 
varied hues of the sea anemone, and the curves, volutes and 
flowing lines of the univalves and bivalves are worthy of 
patient stud/ with reference to graceful and fanciful orna- 
mentation. 



REMOVAL OF OLD VARNISH. 

A Mr. Myer has just patented, in Germany, a composi- 
tion for removing old varnish from objects. It is obtained 
by mixing five parts of 36 per cent, silicate of potash, one of 
40 per cent, soda lye, and one of sal ammoniac (hydrochlor- 
ate of ammonia). 



442 
DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF INCHES, FEET AND YARDS. 



Frac. Dec. Dec. 


Ins. 


Feet. 


Yds. 


of an of an of a 


I = 


0833 = 


0277 


Inch. Inch. Foot. 


2 = 


1666 = 


0555 


1-16 = .0625 = .00521 


3 = 


25 = 


0833 


j4 = . 125 = .01041 


4 = 


3333 = 


iiii 


3-16= .1875 = .01562 


5 = 


4166 = 


1389 


X = -25 == .02083 


6 = 


5 = 


1666 


5-16 = .3125 = .02604 


7 = 


-5833 = 


1944 


H = -375 = -03125 


8 = 


.666 = 


2222 


7-16 = .4375 = -03645 


9 = 


•75 = 


-25 


X == -5 = -04166 


10 = 


.8333 = 


2778 


9-16 = .5625 = .04688 


II = 


.9166 = 


3055 


^ = .625 = .05208 


12 = 


I. = 


.3333 


11-16 = .6875 = .05729 








■ K= -75 = -06250 








13-16 = .8125 = .06771 








Vs = .875 = -07291 









DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF OUNCES AND POUNDS. 



Oz. Lbs. 


Oz. Lbs. 


Oz. Lbs. 


X = .015625 


4 = -25 


8X = -5313 


)4 = .03125 


4X = 


2813 


9 == 


5625 


X = .046875 


5 = 


3125 


10 = 


625 


I = .0625 


5X = 


3438 


II = 


6875 


iX = .09375 


6 = 


375 


12 = 


75 


2 = .125 


6X = 


4063 


13 = 


8125 


2X = .15625 


7 = 


4375 


14 = 


875 


3 =-1875 


7^/2 = 


4688 


15 = 


9375 


3X = .21875 


8 = 


5 


16 = I. 



NOTES ON TFIE LAW AFFECTING ARCHI- 
TECTS. 

A person following the occupation of forming plans, draw- 
ings and specifications for building purposes, representing 
himself as an architect, is presumed in law not only as being 
such, but to be learned in the profession. 

If there is any obscurity in the drawings and specifications, 
the contractor should apply to the architect for directions, or 
be liable for the consequences. 

There is no fixed rule as to compensation of architects in 
the United States law. 

The architect's contract does not survive to his represent- 
ative. So, if there is a contract to complete certain work 



443 

for a certain sum, the representative of a deceased architect 
cannot recover for the part performance. 

In competitions it should always be made clearly under- 
stood that the drawings, etc., are subject to approval, for 
otherwise the party receiving them will be liable for their 
value, whether used or not. 

An architect has not the right to substitute another pcr» 
son in his stead. 

If the architect fraudulently or capriciously refuses to give 
proper certificates when required, the builder may maintain 
an action for specific performance or against the architect for 
damages. 

PRESERVATION OF WOOD BY LIME. 

I have for many years been in the habit of preparing 
home-grown timber of the inferior sort of fir — Scotch spruce 
and silver — by steeping it in a tank (that is, aiiole dug in 
clay or peat, which was fairly water-tight) in a saturated solu- 
tion of lime. Its effect on the sap-wood is to so harden it 
and fill it with pores that it perfectly resists the attacks of the 
little wood-boring beetle, and makes it, in fact, equally as dura- 
ble as the made wood. I had a mill which was lofted with 
Scotch fir prepared in this way in 1850, and it is in perfect 
preservation. The timber is packed as closely as it will lie in the 
tank, water is let in, and unslacked lime is thrown on the top 
and well stirred about. There is no danger that the solution 
Vvill not find its way to everything in the tank. I leave the 
wood in the solution for two or three months, by the end of 
which time an inch board will be fully permeated by it. Joists 
and beams would, of course, take a longer time for saturation ; 
but, in practice, we find that the protection afforded by two 
or three months' steeping is sufficient, if the scantlings are cut 
to the sizes at which they are to be used. 

A VERY DURABLE WOOD. 

The interesting fact is stated that so indestructible by 
wear or decay is the African teak wood that vessels built of it 
have lasted one hundred years, to be then only broken up 
because of their poor sailing qualities from faulty models. 
The wood, in fact, is one of the most remarkable known, on 
account of its very great weight, hardness and durability, its 
weight varying from forty-two to fifty-two pounds per cubic 
foot. It works easily, but, on account of the large quantity 
of silex contained in it, the tools employed are quickly worn 
away. It also contains oil, which prevents spikes and other 
iron work, with which it comes in contact, from rusting. 



444 

HOW TO BUILD AN ICE HOUSE. 

I. The ice house floor should be above the level of the 
ground, or, at least, should be above some neighboring area 
to give an outfall for a drain, put in such a way as to keep 
the floor clear of standing water. 

2. The walls should be hollow. A four inch lining-wall, 
tied to the outer wall with hoop iron, and with a three-inch 
air space, would answer ; but it would be better, if the air 
space is thoroughly drained, to fill it with mineral wool, or 
some similar substance, to prevent the movement of the air 
entangled in the fibers, and thus check the transference by 
convection of heat from the outside of the lining wall. 

3. A roof of thick plank will keep out heat far better 
than one of thin boards with an air space under it. 

4. Shingles will be much better for roofing than slate. 

•5. It is best to ventilate the upper portion of the build- 
ing. If no ventilation is provided, the confined air under 
the roof becomes intensely heated in summer ; and outlets 
should be provided, at the highest part, with inlets at con- 
venient points, to keep the temperature of the air over the 
ice at least down to that of the exterior atmosphere. 

TESTING EXTERIOR STAINS. 

Since the use of stains for exterior work became so gen- 
eral, several stains, some good and some bad, have appeared 
on the market, so that a few points on estimating their com- 
parative values may not be amiss. 

The nose, and, to a less degree, the eye, are admirable 
allies for this work, but, unassisted, are not infallible. The 
following is about the simplest method of testing ; t 

1. Search for kerosene by w^arming, and then noting the 
smell. Also, note the thinness and lack of covering power 
which kerosene causes. Kerosene is simply a cheapener. 

2. See how fine it brushes out on a smooth shingle. 
There should not be the slightest grit or any perceptible 
grains of pigment, the presence of which will prove that the 
coloring was mixed dry with the vehicle, and was never 
ground fine. 

3. Pour out some of the stain in a tumbler. If it begins 
to settle at once, except in the case of a chrome yellow or 
green, it is made as above stated, by mixing a dry paint with 
the vehicle, and therefore should be avoided. 

A well-ground oil stain tested in this way held up a whole 
day, and a creosote stain a day and a half. 

Of course, when debating between two stains, it is best 



445 

to try them side by side. In such case the comparatWe color- 
strength may be determined by diluting equal quantities of 
both stains at about the same shade, with equal quantities of 
turpentine, and then applying the diluted colors to wood, and 
noting the depth of the color. One part of stain to ten parts 
of turpentine is a good strength. 

HOW TO PREPARE CALCIMINE. 

Soak one pound of white glue over night; then dissolve 
U in boiling water, and add twenty pounds of Paris white, 
diluting with water until the mixture is of the consistency 
of rich milk. To this any tint can be given that is de- 
sired. 

Lilac — Add to the calcimine two parts of Prussian blue 
and one of vermilion, stirring thoroughly, and takmg care to 
avoid too high a color. 

Gray — Raw umber, with a trifling amomit of lamp- 
black. 

Rose — Three parts of vermilion and one of red lead, 
added in very small quantities until a delicate shade is pro- 
duced. 

Lavender — Mix a light blue, and tint it slightly with 
vermilion. 

Sfra^.a — Chrome yellow, with a touch of Spanish brown. 

Buff — Two parts spruce, or Indian yellow, and one part 
burnt sienna. 

HOW BASSWOOD MOLDINGS ARE MADE. 

Basswood may be enormously compressed, after which it 
may be steamed and expanded to its original volume. Advan- 
tage has been taken of this principle in the manufacture of 
certain kinds of moldings. The portions of the wood to be 
left in relief are first compressed or pushed down by suitable 
dies below the general level of the board, then the board is 
planed down to a level surface, and afterward steamed. The 
compressed portions of the board are expanded by the steam, 
30 that they stand out in relief. 

BUILDING BLOCKS MADE OF COP.NCOBS. 

Building blocks made of corncobs form the object of a 
new Italian patent. The cobs are pressed by machinery into 
forms similar to bricks, and held together by wire. They are 
made water-tight by soaking with tar. These molds are very 
hard and strong. Their weight is less than one-third of that 
of hollow brick, and they can never get damp. 



446 
REDWOOD FINISH. 

The following formula and directions have been highly 
recommended. 

Take one quart spirits turpentine. 

Add one pound corn starch. 

Add % ** burnt sienna. 

Add one tablespoonful raw linseed oil. 

Add ** '' bro\\-n Japan. 

Mix thoroughly, apply with a brush, let it stand say fif- 
teen minutes; rub off all you can with fine shavings or a soft 
rag, then let it stand at least tive7ity-four hours, that it may 
smk into and ha7'de7t the fibers of the wood; afterward apply 
two coats of white shellac, rub do^^^l well with fine flint 
paper, then put on from two to five coats best polishing var- 
nish; after it is well dried, rub with water and pumice-stone 
ground very fine, stand a day to dry; after being washed 
clean with chamois, rub with water and rotten-stone; dry, 
wash as before clean, and rub with olive oil until dry. 

Some use 'cork for sand-papering and polishing, but a 
smooth block of hard wood, like maple, is better. When 
treated in this way, redwood will be found the peer of any 
wood for real beauty and life as a house trim or finish. 

A NEW WALL PLASTER. 

A new material for use instead of common plaster is now 
prepared, which offers many advantages, as it can be applied 
more quickly, and dries in less than twenty-four hours. It 
is impervious to dampness, and there is no possibility of the 
window and door casings contracting or swelling and causing 
cracks, as very little water is required in the mixing. It is 
known as "Adamant " wall-plaster, and deserves its name, as, 
when once dry, it is very hard to break. From a sanitary 
point of view, it is also valuable, as it is non-absorbent. 

A RELIABLE CEMENT. 

A reliable cement, one that will resist the action of 
water and acl^s, especially acetic acid, is : Finely powdered 
litharge, fine, dry white sand and plaster of Paris — each 
three quarts by measure — finely pulverized resin one part. 
Mix and make into a paste with boiled linseed oil, to which 
a little dryer has been added, and let it stand for four or five 
hours before using. After fifteen hours' standing, it loses 
strength. The cement is said to have been successfully used 
in Zoological Gardens, London. 



447 

PAVEMENTS. 

Bricks, impregnated at a warm temperature with as* 
phaltum, have been successfully used in Berlin, for street 
pavement. After driving out the water with heat, bricks 
will take up "^from fifteen to thirty per centum of bitumen, 
and the porous, brittle material becomes durable and elastic 
under pressure, the bricks are then put endwise on a beton 
"bed, and set with hot tar. It is said that the rough usage 
which the pavement made of these bricks will stand is aston- 
ishing. A few years ago, in California, a pavement was laid 
of bricks, those that were soft -burned being selected, which 
were saturated with boiling coal tar. They were placed end- 
wise on a bed of concrete, and the interstices filled with the 
hot tar, sand being scattered to the depth of about one-half 
(^)inch upon the pavement, and afterward swept off. And 
now we learn from an exchange that bricks- impregnated 
with creosote or bitumen have been adopted for paving pur- 
poses in Nashville, Tenn. , and with very satisfactory results. 
The wear is very uniform, as the softer and more porous 
bricks absorb more bitumen, which has the effect of harden- 
ing them, at the same time making them absolutely imper- 
vious, and thus protecting them from the disintegrating effect 
pf frost. It is stated that pavement of this type, exposed 
for three and a half (3^) years to the wear of fairly heavy 
traffic, was, at the end of that period, found to be in excel- 
lent condition. The process of bitumenizing, however, 
rather more than doubles the cost of the brick. 

A POLISH FOR WOOD. 

The wooden parts of tools, such as the stocks of planes 
and handles of chisels, are often made to have a nice appear- 
ance by French polishing; but this adds nothing to their 
durability. A much better plan is to let them soak in lin- 
seed oil for a week, and rub with a new cloth for a few min- 
utes every day for a week or two. This produces a beauti- 
ful surface, and has a solidifying effect on the wood. 

TO CALCULATE THE NUMBER OF SHINGLES 
FOR A ROOF. 

To calculate number of shingles for a roof, ascertain num- 
ber of square feet, and multiply by four, if two inches to 
weather, 8 for 4^ inches; and 7 1-5 if 5 inches are exposed. 
The length of a rafter of one-third pitch is equal to three- 
fifths of width of building, adding projection. 



448 
VALUABLE FIGURES. 

The following figures are worth remembering, as they 
will save a good deal of calculation and give approximately 
accurate results with a minimum of labor : 

A cord of stone, three bushels of lime and a cubic yard 
of sand, will lay one hundred cubic feet of wall. 

Five courses of brick \nll lay a foot in height on a 
chimney. 

Nine bricks in a course will make a flue eight inches wide 
and twenty inches long, and eight bricks in a course mil 
make a flue eight inches wide and sixteen inches long. 

Eight bushels of good lime, sixteen bushels of sand 
and one bushel of hair, will make enough mortar to plaster 
one -hundred square yards. 

One- fifth more siding and flooring is needed than the 
number of square feet of surface to be covered, because of the 
lap in the siding and matching of the floor. 

One thousand laths will cover seventy yards of surface, 
and eleven pounds of lath nails will nail them on. 

One thousand shingles laid four inches to the weather, 
will cover one hundred square feet of surface, and five pounds 
of shingle nails will fasten them on. 

FROSTED GLASS. 

Verre Givre, or hoar frost glass, is an article now made 
in Paris, so called from the pattern upon it, which resembles 
the feathery forms traced by frost on the inside of the win- 
dows in cold weather. The process of making the glass is 
simple. 

The surface is first ground, either by the sand blast or 
the ordinary method, and is then covered with a sort of 
varnish. On being dried, either in the sun or by artificial 
heat, the varnish contracts strongly, taking with it the parti- 
cles of glass to which it adheres ; and, as the contraction 
takes place along definite lines, the pattern produced by the 
removal of the particles of glass resembles very closely the 
branching crystals of frostwork. 

A single coat gives a small, delicate etfect, while a thick 
film, formed by putting on two, three or more coats, con- 
tracts so strongly as to produce a large and bold design. By 
using colored glass, a pattern in half-tint may be made on the 
color ed ground, and, after decorating white glass, the back 
may be silvered or gilded. 



449 
PERFECT MITERING. 

BY OWEN B. MAGINNIS. 

The many awkward ways in which so many woodworking 
mechanics endeavor to mark and cut in soft and hard wood 
moldings, and the botching results of their efforts, has in- 
duced the writer to give the following simple and successful 
methods which are perfect in their accuracy. 

The different conditions which exist through the careless- 
ness of those who precede him, when an operator commences 
to set in his molding, often cause him much trouble and loss 
of patience, as for instance, a molding being run standing on 
the little rebated lip or a raised molding being out of square, 
or an obtuse angle, instead of a little zmder^ or an acute 
angle. This will of course necessitate, either the re-rebating 
of the molding by hand, or taking the arris ofHihe corner of 
the panel sinkage as shown at A. Fig. i. Then the molding 




Fig. I. 
is often stuck too thin for sinkage, as will be clearly seen ort 
the left hand side of the panel at B, and again the surface of 
the door, on account of the inequalities of the thickness of 
the pieces, especially on the back side, often varies as much 
as -^^ of an inch. This difficulty is easily overcome by the 
following sure process. 

'l ake a small strip, and, placing the end of it down in the 
corner, mark the arrises with a sharp pocket knife. Measure 
these depths; in the case shown here they will be, for exam- 
ple, respectively, ^-inch, j^-inch, j^^-inch, full, j4-inch full, 
and Yz -inch, scant. Having done this, make 4 strips, or saddles. 



450 

equal in width to the different depths of the sinkage, as >^-inch 
wide, ^-^g^ wide, and so on, each being about ^-inch thick and 
Icu;^ enough to go into the uiter box between the saw cuts. 




Fig. 2. 
Place it in the box as represented at Fig. 2, with the lip of 
the molding resting on the saddle as it will rest on the door 
frame, at the miter and saw the left-hand end (say on the % 
scant saddle): To get the neat and exact length without 
gauging on the door. From the point where the saw crosses 
the saddle at Fig. 3, square across the bottom of the box 
with the pen-knife. These lines are the neat and exact 
lengths for either end, so if the thin edge — B^ Figs, i and 3, 
of the molding, be marked at the opposite arris, holding the 
already mitered end close into its corners — and then this 
mark be placed at the asterisk or intersection, and the 
molding sawn on the saddle necessary for the opposite cor- 
ner (say % full saddle), and so on all around the panel, it 
will, if cut out of one piece, perfectly utersect in its profile, 
the lip will come to a close joint on the frame, and the thin 
edge close to the panel. The dotted line in Fig. 3 shows 
how the molding should be neld down in the box. The best 
way is to try a pair of pattern pieces as shown at Fig. i (on 
the necessary saddle), trying the patterns in each corner. 



I 



"~ *{'Ji ,'^' 7f - '"""t 



3ZII 



:zz 






Fig. 3- 
By this means it will be easy to find the exact saddle which 
will bring a good miter. Be sure they will come right 
before commencing to cut the molding all round. If it be 
too thick for the sinkage, of course it must be planed down 
on the back until it is a shaving thin, so that it will not strike 
the fillet, but press closely on the panel. 

Great care should be exercised in cutting Ae miter box, as 



451 

perfect mitering is almost reliant on a good box, cut exactly 
on the angle of forty-five degrees. To set the level, lay out 
a square on a drawing-board about four inches wide. Join 
the opposite angles like at Fig. 4 (be certain it is exact to a 
hair, or the bevel will not reverse itself). Place the bevel on - 
to the lines joining the angles as it lies on the board and 
mark the miter box by it. This is the only perfect way to 
miter and cut in raised moldings, and will always, without 
error, assure accuracy and good mitering. 

Fig. 4. 











X 






II , ^ 


) 



Mitering flush molding or molding which does not rise 
above the surface of the frame is comparatively simple, and 
is usually done with a jack, except in the case of large mold- 
ing. All that is necessary is to first miter the left-hand end 
and mark the right hand. 

The handiest way is to commence at the right-hand 
corner next to you, and work to the farthest corner, and soon 
all round, returning to the one started from. Should the 
lengths, when placed in the panel before drawing dowm, be 
too long, take a rebate plane, shaving off until they be a snug, 
tight fit. 

THE VENTILATION OF BUILDINGS. 

Perhaps no single feature of modern architectural construc- 
tion is likely to secure such immediate regard in the near 
future, and is already so conspicuously engaging the attention 
of the foremost men in the profession, as that of proper ven- 
tilation. Nor can it be denied that no feature is more im- 
portant for health considerations in private homes, office 



452 

buildings and public institutions, than the securing of a steady 
supply of pure air and the coincident and corresponding 
UTioval of the vitiated air, so that the atmosphere in the 
)oms is, at all times, fresh and pure. The two points cov- 
:ed in the last sentence constitute what is known as, and is 
clinically termed, " ventilation." 

The expedients for obtaining a supply of fresh air to the 
)om, so that there is a constant dilution and consequent 
bettering of the atmosphere, are comparatively simple. They 
merely imply that the air warmed by the hot-air furnace or 
steam coils in the cellar be taken from a place where it is 
pure (not, for instance, above a cesspool), that the ducts in 
cellar, through which the air travels, be air-tight (preferably 
be constructed of No. 22 or No. 24 galvanized iron, rather 
than of wood), and that some automatic means be adopted to 
regulate the temperature of the air supplied to the rooms, 
■without shutting off such air supply. Or, when steam radia- 
tors are in rooms, that they be placed below windows, and 
air pass by means of proper orihces from outside through the 
radiators. 

Furthermore, in large structures, a fan driven by electric 
■or steam power is often instituted for forcing in a larger 
amount of fresh air than could be secured by the natural suc- 
tion of the warmed air. 

But the mere supply of warmed fresh air to the rooms is 
not enough. For note, if the air in the room has no escape, 
it does not take long, whatever the fresh air supply, before 
the vitiated air contaminates and makes foul the air as it 
■enters the apartment. To open the windows is the remedy 
which the uninitiated at once suggest, and, in fact, in most 
.houses this is the only palliative at hand. 

It is, however, one of the first principles of ventilation, 
that the windows must not enter as an expedient. In a 
properly ventilated building the windows should never be 
open when people are in the roomys, at least in the winter 
months. For, opening the windows secures the admission of 
cold air in bulk, but does not remove the foul air, and more 
especially causes pneumonia-giving draughts, and chills the 
room, and in this way more damage is done than by even the 
presence itself of vitiated air in the rooms. 

\ warm or hot room does not necessarily signify an im- 
pure atmosphere; while we may have a room cold and the 
atmosphere still terribly impure. The unthinking never take 
this into account, and are apt to confuse the term warm with 
impure, and the term cold with pure atmosphere, as far as the 
:rooms they are in are concerned. 



453 

The proper way to remove the vitiated air is by means of 
vent-ducts, or vertical flues leading from the rooms to the 
roof of the building. These flues should have an aggregate 
cross-sectional area at least equal to, and preferably about 
ten per cent, greater than, the cross-sectional area of the 
fresh air inlets; and should be situated on the opposite 
(preferably diagonally opposite) side of the room. 

These vent-ducts should have openings controlled by 
registers, near the floor and near the ceilings of the rooms, 
but the two registers should not be opened at the same time. 
The cross-sectiona.1 area of the registers should be twenty-five 
per cent, more than that of the vent-ducts. 

The bottom register is the one ordinarily to be used; for 
the hesLYj, vitiated air sinks to the floor, while the fresher, un- 
polluted air rises. When the people in the room are smoking 
profusely, it is better to close the bottom and open the top 
registers of the vent-ducts, for the smoke rises to the top, 
and is then more speedily removed. 

These vent -ducts cause a gentle draught in the same way 
that a chimney of a steam boiler or hot-air furnace does. 
The temperature in the room being higher than that of the 
external air, the temperature in the vent-ducts is also higher, 
and consequently a draught or removal of the vitiated air is 
secured, the amount depending on the area and height of the 
duct, and the difference of temperature between the ex- 
ternal air and. the air in the room. This system is known as 
that of natural ventilation. >• I. 

To make tliis removal of vitiated air still more rapid than I 

IS secured by the natural draught just mentioned and ex- 
plained, one of several expedients may be adopted. An 
exhaust-fan, driven by steam or electric power, may be placed 
near the top of vent-duct, and the air exhausted from duct by 
means of this fan, thus increasing the fresh air supply through 
fresh air inlet. This is frequently adopted in public build- 
ings, where the rooms are, at times, full of people. Or the 
temperature of the air in the vent-ducts, and consequently 
the drabght and the removal of vitiated air, may be in- 
creased by any of the following means: 

1. Gas jets may be burned in the vent-flues near the bot- 
tom. 

2. Steam risers, through which steam of high or low 
pressure circulates, may run through the vent-ducts. 

3. Such steam risers may have a large coil near top, or 
right above vent-flues proper. 

For private homes and dwellings; natural ventilation 
suffices. For public buildings and large halls, either the fan 



454 

or the st^m system should be preferably adopted. The gas 
jets give out a comparatively little additional heat, but are 
inexpensive in first cost, and in running expense. 

In a paper " On the Relative Economy of Ventilation by 
Heated Chimneys and Ventilation by Fans," read by Prof. 
Wm. P. Trowbridge, of the School of Mines, Columbia Col- 
lege, before the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 
Prof. Trowbridge decides that in all cases of moderate ven- 
tilation of rooms or buildings, where, as a condition of health 
or comfort, the air must be heated before it enters the rooms, 
and spontaneous ventilation is produced by the passage of 
this heated air upward through vertical flues, such ventila- 
tion, if sufficient, is faultless as far as cost is concerned. He 
consideres this a condition of things which may be realized 
in most dwelling houses, and in many halls, school-rooms and 
public buildings, inlet and outlet flues of ample cross-section 
being provided, and the heated air being properly distrib- 
uted. 

If, however, starting from this condition of things, a more 
active ventilation is demanded, the question of relative econ- 
omy of fan and heated chimney is not so simple a problem. 
Prof. Trowbridge points out that ventilation by chimneys is 
disadvantageous under one point of view in any case, viz : the 
difficulty of accelerating the ventilation at will when larger 
quantities of air are needed in emergencies; while the fan 
or blower possesses the advantage in this respect, that by in- 
creasing the number of revolutions of the fan the head or 
pressure is increased. This latter fact makes the fan prefer- 
able for the ventilation of hospitals or public buildings of 
considerable magnitude, whenever, as is customary, the activ- 
ity of the ventilation must be varied occasionally. 

Where the power required is only a small fraction of a 
horse-power, as in ventilating single large rooms or small 
buildings, Prof. Trowbridge concludes it to be evident that as 
regards cost of fuel and the care and attention required, ven- 
tilation by heated chimneys is preferable, except, of course, 
for cases where a fan is driven by machinery employed for 
other purposes than ventilation, the cost of attendance charge- 
able to ventilation being then trifling and the fan evidently 
being more appropriate. 

The construction of the building, of course, enters as an 
important factor, and often precludes the adoption of the ex- 
haust-fan system. In large structures it is always important 
to take into account, and decide upon, the system of ventila- 
tion before the plans of the building proper are finished or 
finally adopted. 



45i> 



BURYING A SCREW HEAD OUT OF bIGHT. 

To get the heads of nails and screws out of sight, where 
glue can be used without any objection, just raise up a chip 
with a thin paring chisel, as shown in the drawing, and then 
set the nail in solid. This " leaf" can be covered with a coat- 
ing of glue and laid back again in place, where it must fit on 
all sides to perfection. A dead weight will hold everything 
in place till the glue dries, and a few moments with the 
scraper makes the job complete. It will add to the nicety of 
the work to draw lengthwise with the grain two deep cuts 
with a thin case-knife just the width of the chisel, and this 
keeps the sides of the chips from splitting. The chisel should 
be set at a steep angle at first till the proper depth is reached, 
and then made to turn out a cut of 
even thickness until there is room to 
drive a nail. If too shatp a curve is 
given, the leaf is likely to break apart 
in being straightened out again. In 
blind nailing a narrow chip is taken 
with a tool made especially for this 

m|^^ purpose, that lifts the cut just high 

«^^^W//// enough to let in the nail on the slant, 
W ^^A^ '' / a set slightly concaved, being used to 

W 1 / / keep it from ever slipping off the 

head, and the upraised cut driven 
down again with the hammer. 

HIP AND VALLEY ROOF FRAMING. 

A simple way of laying out a hip or valley roof and 
finding the length of jack rafters, cuts and bevels, is shown 
in the accompanying sketch. The method followed is com- 
paratively simple and easily understood. 

Lay down the plan of the building A, B, C, Z>, find the 
center line of the ridge £ F, and show the plan of hips A F 
and B F, also the jacks G J/and IK. 

To find the length of the common or straight side rafters, 
lay off on the ridge line F F the height of the pitch E M. 
From the point N, which is the outside edge of the wall 
plate, join N M. This will give N M as the extreme 
length, on the upper edge, of the common rafter which is to 
stand over the seat E N. ^ 

" In order to find the length of the hip rafi^/s whi(?n will 
stand over the seats C E or B Fy draw the line O E 
square with the line E C, and make O E=M E the height 
of the pitch. Join the point C with the point O, thus 




456 

obtained, which will give the length to the hip rafter on its 
upper edge. 

The length of the jack rafters is generally obtained by 
direct measurement, but the following method will be found 
correct. Produce the line N E^ and make iV/' equal to 
the length of the common rafter, so that N P=M N^]om. 
P C, which will equal C O; produce the seat of the jack 



/ 




















I 


\ 


\ 




> 
F 


<v 


•> 






K \ 








\ 




1 


/ 


X 


'V 


■^ 


^ 

* 


\ 




/ 




\\ 


/ 




^ 


B C 














N 


\ 


r c 



rafters k i and g h, until they intersect P C m I and 7n, 
and then i I and g m will be the correct lengths for the 
jack rafters. 

In raising a roof of this description, it is usual to cut the 
ridge E F and the common rafters which abut against it at 
each end as at R F. In placing them in position they are 
fastened plumb over their seats by braces, and the side 
rafters are placed each against its mate, as i against 7, 2 
against 2, ^ against j*, and so on. 

When all the side rafters are in position, the hips are 
inserted, and their accompanying jacks. 

PAINTING AND VARNISHING FLOORS. 

A French writer observes that painting floors with any 
color containing white lead is injurious, as it renders the 
wood soft and less capable of wear. Other paints without 
white lead, such as ochre, raw umber or sienna, are not in- 
jurious and can be used with advantage. Varnish made of 
drying lead salts is also said to be destructive, and it is 
reccommended that the borate of manganese should be used 
to dispose the varnish to dry. A recipe for a good floor var- 



457 

nish is given as follows: Take two pounds of pure white 
borate of manganese, finely powdered, and add it little by 
little to a saucepan containing ten pounds of linseed oil, which 
is to be well stirred and raised to a temperature of 360^ Fahr. 
Heat 100 pounds of linseed oil in a boiler till ebullition takes 
place; then add to it the first liquid, increase the heat and 
allow it to boil for twenty minutes. Then remove from the 
fire and filter the solution through cotton cloth. The var* 
nish is then ready for use, two coats of which may be used, 
with a final coat of shellac, if a brilliant polish is required. 

A COLOSSAL STICK OF TIMBER. 

A colosal stick of lumber from Puget Sound has been con- 
tributed to the Mechanics Exhibition at San Francisco. Its 
length is 151 feet, and it is twenty by twenty inches through. 
It is believed to be the longest piece of timber ever turned out 
of any saw mill. 

A few years ago mechanics cared very little about winter 
work of any kind. They rather looked forward with pleas- 
ure to the prospects of a long rest. Things have been chang- 
ing recently, and the tendency now is to secure all the winter 
work possible: One reason is, there are more building and 
loan associations, more insurance societies, more lodges and 
more organizations of one kind and another, all of which 
must be kept up. Besides, there is an increasing amount of 
work that has heretofore been done in summer. The cost of 
labor in a good many vocations is less in winter than it is in 
summer, owing to the small amount to be done and the greater 
number seeking it. 

PLASTER FOR MOLDINGS. 

Where walls and ceilings are to be molded whilst yet in a 
plastic state, some decorators are using a fibrous plaster, with 
the object of securing greater firmness and tenacity. The 
idea itself is not new, animal hair having formerly been inter- 
mixed with lime, but this is a new application. In England 
and France a fine wire netting is at times inserted between 
two courses of plaster, to afford greater firmness in holding 
picture frames. The tenacity of some of the old mo]dino|j 
in old New York houses, whilom aristocratic, is very 
remarkable, retaining as they do their original sharpness of 
outline. 



458 
THE SWEATING OF CHIMNEYS. 

The sweating of chimneys is now believed to be due to 
condensation of the moisture in the air that is confined in a 
poorly ventilated chimney flue. The trouble, as our corre- 
spondent indicates, is chiefly to be found occurring in small 
chimneys, and in such chimneys whose flues start from the 
second or third story of a building. The sweating is the 
most copious when a fire is started in a place that has been 
for some time in disuse, or, in other words, when the flue is 
cold. The humidity of the air is a large factor in the 
phenomena of sweating. If the air be charged with moisture, 
the flue cold, and a fire newly kindled, the conditions are 
favorable for sweating. It is only under these favorable 
conditions that a well-ventilated chimney will begin to sweat, 
but the sweating will not continue. If sweating should 
continue in a chimney after a fire is fairly under way, it can 
be safely concluded that the chimney needs an opening near 
the gi'ound to provide a better circulation of air within the 
flue. It may be, as our correspondent suggests, that rain 
may beat in and cause the same effect as sweating, especially 
where the rain has continued for several days together, and 
in that case a cowl, such as has been lately described in 
"Building, in House and Stable Fittings, " would cure the 
disease by excluding the rain ; but such occurrences are 
exceedingly rare, and we have seen chimneys guilty of sweat- 
ing that were provided with the most approved form of cowl, 
and the remedy apphed has been to insert an air-brick at the 
base of the chimney to secure better ventilation, so as to 
lessen condensation, and the device has proved successful 
Cowls prove useful only so far as they promote ventilation 
by increasing the circulation within the chimney flue. A 
cowl may be so improperly applied to a flue as to promote, 
instead of abolishing, sweating. The main point is to 
provide an ingress of air sufiicient to tax the extractive 
caD»^"ty of the cowl that is used. 

ELECTRIC LIGHTS IN GERMANY. 

According to Dr. Schilling, the number of electric light 
installations in the 13 principal towns of Germany has in- 
creased during the last two years from i^! to 604; the number 
of arc lamps has increased from 591 to 3,280, and the number 
%f incandescents from 10,403 to 50,469. The number of 
gas lamps in these 13 towns is 1,221,882, and therefore, lamp 
for lamp, electricity furnishes about four per cent, of the 
total illumination. 



459 
SMOKY CHIMNEYS AND HOW TO CURE THEM. 
A smoky chimney is a complaint we are often called upon 
to deal with, and the best way of building chimneys which 
should not smoke into the rooms, and of remedying existing 
chimneys which are liable to do so, is a matter of great im- 
portance to estate clerks of works. There are many small 
matters in building new chimneys which, together, may be a 
means of preventing them from smoking at the wrong end ; 
but my intention at present is to dea4 crJy with the shaft or 
stack, or portion outside the roof, and my object is not to 
give ornamental elevations of chimney heads, which are un- 
necessary for the purpose of this article, but to explain a way 
of forming them which I have many timesfound to give relief 
to inveterate smokers. A common shaft, such a one as 
would be adapted for existing old cottages, is. 2^ bricks or 
I ft. lo^ in. in width, and in my opinion none should be less 
than this, with a 9-inch earthenware flue-pipe built in solid; 
this I usually commence on the damp course, which should 
be just above the flashings of roof. As the area of the round 
pipe is smaller than the 14-inch by 9-inch brick flue 
on which it is placed, a quicker current of air or draught is 
thereby generated, and in windy weather a check is given to 
sudden down-draughts. Another advantage in a flue-lined 
stack is that there is no danger of the brickwork cracking 
when the soot in the flue is on fire, and which, owing to the 
scarcity of chimney-sweeps, is often the case in country places. 
Stoneware drain pipes, however, are quite unfit, as they are 
liable to split with the heat ; but the tubes made of fire-clay 
or terra-cotta, only should be used. Another help is to keep 
the stack dry ; a damp flue is generally a smoky one, and if a 
fire is lighted in the fire-place, say, of a disused bed-room, it 
is a common occurrence to see the smoke puff down violently 
and the chimney is said to have a down-draught, and by many 
people is assumed to be badly constructed, whereas, perhaps, 
it may be built in the best possible manner except that it will 
not keep out rain and damp. The rain may come through th^ 
sides of the stack, or it may C(i^i'edownward through the head ', 
at any rate the chimney for some distance from the top is, in 
wet weather, cold and soppy. I roof the chimney top with 
plain tiles, with the object of protecting the head and 
permitting the rain to drop off at the eaves instead 
of running down the stack and making the flue cold, 
and ^the stack outwardly black and soot stained I 
bed the tiles in cement, using copper nails driven into the 
la' ter through the pin holes — or a plain, cemented weather- 



iHg looks fairly well. But by forming the covering with tiles 
a good drip is obtained, which is not so readily done with 
cement. Another point is not to make the slope or 
pitch of a suitable angle, and this, in my opinion, 
should be about 45 degrees, as I find that inclination most 
effectual; when the wind strikes the slope it takes an upward 
direction, and, as a matter of course, carries the smoke with 
it. 

Some time since a gentleman living by the seaside was 
much troubled with smoky chimneys, and asked me what 
was the best thing to do ; I told him near about what I have 
just now written, and a short time afterward I received a letter 
(which I must confess somewhat scared me) saying he had 
decided to pull down his chimneys and rebuild them on my 
principle, and desired me to order for him two truck loads of 
George Jennings' flue pipes at once. This I did, and waited 
anxiously for the result; at last I was gratified by hearing 
" Chimneys are a great success," but it was summer time, 'and 
I was not so sure how they would act in cold, boisterous 
weather by the seaside, where every patented smoke-curer 
had apparently been tried by some one or other ; but eventu- 
ally I was glad to learn that they continued to draw well. 

I have proved this system of chimney stack building to be 
good in a large number of cases ; for instance, my office 
chimney is directly under the branches of a large tree, and 
the fire is on the hearth, yet I am never troubled with smoke. 

For economizing heat in single houses or detached cot- 
tages, we all know it is the best plan to get the chimney on 
the inside, and not forming a portion of the outer walls, as in 
the latter case they are much more likely to smoke, and we 
also know that register grates, or grates with doors a few 
inches above the fire, generally make the fire draw ; they not 
only draw the smoke, but a greater portion of the heat as 
well, and necessitate getting very close to the fire to obtain a 
portion of the heat going up the chimney. To my mind, 
there is nothing to equal a fire on the hearth, and wood, if 
you, can get it, in preference to coals. 

There is much might be said about set-offs in flues, and I 
know they are objected to as a rule, but I believe a chimney 
with. one or two set-offs is all the better for it. I also 
believe chimney heads built in cement mortar true -economy; 
the latter makes good work and looks well, long after chim- 
ney heads built with lime mortar, which soon show startling 
mortar joints and crumbly bricks. How often do we find 
old chimney heads want repointing, for the weathe»* loosens 
the mortar and the birds carry it away. 



401 

The summary of my experience is briefly thi^ . 

1. Put a damp course to new chimneys, or insert one in 
old chimneys. 

2. Line the chimney: v^^ith flue pipes ahovp "lie damp 
course. 

3. Roof the chimney tops carefully. 

4. Don't forget a good projecting eaves-dKp to the 
chimney head. 

4. Build the heads with cement mortar 

FACTS ABOUT FURNACESe 

In February, 1881, the committee of hygiene of the 
Medical Society of Kings County rendered a report, which is 
published in fuD in the proceedings of that society, upon 
Tatarrh, and whether that disease was aggravated by resi- 
dence in cities. The opinions of a large number of 
physicians of long experience were obtained, and their testi- 
mony showed " that, though climatic and city influences have 
much to do with the creation of catarrh, yet defective heat- 
ing, lighting, airing, sunning and drainage of houses, with 
improper views as to air, clothing, bathing and exercise, are 
the main causes. " Individual physicians laid special stress 
upon individual influences, as " dry and irritating air from 
villainous furnaces, increased furnace heat and artificial 
methods of living." 

Furnace air per se is not so unwholesome, but it is the 
absence of ventilation which makes it so. If a furnace is oi 
sufficient size to warm a building without opening every draft 
and heating the fire-pot red-hot, and if the fresh air supply is 
taken from a proper source and not from a damp area or 
unclean cellar; and, furtheimore, if there are sufficient 
openings at the top of the house to allow the impure air 
which rises to that point to escape and thus cause a constant 
circulation of sufficiently warmed but not overheated air 
through the house, under these conditions a furnace is not 
objectionable. 

. Furnaces are often badly located. It is easier to force 
warm air through a furnace flue fifty feet away from the 
prevalent wind than ten feet in the opposite direction. 
Hence the furnace should be placed nearest the northern 
side of the building, or two should be provided Hot-air 
fiues should not be carried for any distance through cold cel- 
lars, halls or basements, as they will become chilled, and will 
not draw without being cased with som** ^^^n. conducting 
material, as mineral wool. 



462 

Don't set a furnace in a pit, especially in a wet soil where 
water will collect after every rain storm, but stand it on 
brick arches, so as to raise it above the ground ; also cement 
the pit. It is unfortunately very common to find such 
depressions fiUed with water ; this causes rusting of the fur- 
nace itself and damp in the cellar. In very many houses 
occupied by persons of means, the furnaces are no longer 
used, but have been replaced by open fires. This is costly 
comfort, but it is a commendable plan, as it furnishes ample 
ventilation to the living rooms. It is desirable that one room 
should at least be thus supplied with a careful and sanitary fire. 

Where fresh-air inlets are carried from the house drain to 
the front of a house at the yard level, they should not be 
located near to the cold-air supply, as there is a chance that 
during heavy states of the atmosphere a do\vn-draft may be 
created, and the foul air sucked into the air box and thence 
upward into the house. Registers should never be placed at 
the floor level, as they will collect dust and sweepings, which 
are liable to take fire. J 

Furnaces with heavy castings Aeat slowly and are less easily 
cracked or warped, and they cool more slowly, so that the 
heat evolved is more uniform. It is well to retain the air 
close to the fire-pot, and thus keep it longer in contact with 
he fire-heating surface. 

Water pans are often badly arranged so that they admit 

.ust, and as they are seldom cleaned that may become offen- 

ive. They should always be supplied by a ball-cock so as to 

e automatic, rather than by a stop-cock which has to be 

opened by a servant, who may be neglectful. 

Attempts have been made to filter the air before entering 
the furnace, but they usually fail. A screen of galvanized iron 
wire of 1-16 mesh will exclude most floating material from 
the air. The air supply is sometimes taken from the attic, 
but it is apt to be dusty and impure. Others take it from 
v^^ibules of halls or piazzas, which are not bad places. 

STEAM vs. HOT- WATER HEATING. 

Hot water as a heating agent is one of the oldest in use, 
and has a number of advantages in its favor. For mild 
climates it answers very well. For northern latitudes, how- 
ever, and in countries such as Canada and most of our north- 
ern States, having long, severe winters, hot-water heating is 
not in general use on account of the following objections; 



4(>3 

High First C^x/ — Hot water, as generally used, only 
gives off two-thirds the amount of heat per square foot of 
radiating surface which steam will give under similar circun>' 
stances. To get the same results as from steam it therefor 
requires about fifty per cent, more of radiators, and a coi 
responding increase of piping. 

Added to the expense of this extra material is that o 
labor, which increases in the same proportion, thus makin 
the entire first cost of hot water about one-third higher than 
steam. t 

Leakage — As all the pipes are continually full of water, 
any leakage will rapidly flood the house, causing trouble and 
damage. With steam, the flow-pipes contain no water 
whatever, and the return drip-pipes but very little, so that in 
event of a leakage the water would be discovered and stopper? 
long before it could do any damage. 

No Way to Shut Off—VslQ have never yet s^en a hot-watet 
radiator which can be turned off and yet allow the water 
within it to flow back to the boiler ; the construction of the 
radiator being such that all the water must circulate up and 
down between divisions connected alternately at the top and 
bottom. 

When the radiator is turned off, these divisions still 
remain full of water which has no chance to run off. It is 
therefore necessary to keep all the radiators in the house run- 
ning all the time, or else take the chances of their freezing 
and giving trouble if they are turned off. Now there are 
certain rooms in almost every house, such as guest-rooms, 
which are only occupied occasionally, and it would be a use- 
less expense and inconvenience to keep them constantly 
warmed. The advantage of steam over hot water in this 
respect is evident. With steam you can entirely shut oflf 
any radiator you please, and keep every room in your house 
at the exact temperature desired, without inconvenience or 
waste of heat. 

Freezing and Bursting — ^It is a curious fact that hot 
wa'ccr will cool down and free^e much quicker than ordinary 
water under \H '■Cime circumstances. The first effect it 
boiling water is tc? drive off all it^ air, hence, becoming mor( 
solid and condensed, it is veiy susceptible to cold and wil 
freeze very easily. If the fir^ in the boiler from any reasof 
goes out, the water, of course, soon stops circulating, and it 
cold weather the pipes will rapidly freeze and burst. Man> 
instances are on record where immense damage has been 
done from this cause. The use of steam, on the other hand, 
entirely precludes this cause. 



404 

Difficulty of Regulation — In zero weather it is difficult to 
keep warm by hot water, unless there is a great amount of 
heating surface, and then in mild weather you are liable at 
my time to have too much heat. This is especially noticeable 
in any sudden change of temperature. 

Hot water, being slow in acquiring heat and slow in part- 
ing with it, is consequently difficult to regulate with any 
degree of satisfaction. 

This feature is seen in greenhouse heating particularly. 
When the sun is shining, on account of the great amount of 
natural heating glass surface, the temperature soon runs up 
above the normal, causing a necessity for opening the ven- 
tilators and, so wasting the heat. And should the temper- 
ature once get down, it takes a long time to get it up again. 
The advantage of steam in this case is apparent, as it is 
capable of being handled and regulated rapidly, and there- 
fore is superior to any other method wherever an even and 
imiform temperature is desired either for a greenhouse or a 
dwelling. 

Comparative Economy — Careful experiments have recently 
l)een made by parties, owning many greenhouses — some of 
ivhich are warmed by steam and others by the most approved 
of ihot-water heaters — for the purpose of accurately determin- 
ing the relative cost of fuel in each case. They-had nothing 
to gain by such experiments except the truth, as, with all flor- 
ists, coal is a very heavy item and one of the principal ex- 
penses attending the running of a greenhouse. 

Without entering into details, it has been demonstrated 
that greenhouses may be heated by steam on two-thirds the 
quantity of .coal required for a hot-water apparatus. This 
fact has become so well established, that to-day steam is very 
Tapidly taking the place of every other method for warming 
greenhouses. 

The objections to hot water for this class of buildings is, 
moreover, much less than for residences, on nearly all the 
receding five points. For instance, a leakage of a pipe can 
■) no harm, as in a house, and there is, of course, no occa- 
on to shut off any portion of the system, as is sometimes 
jsired in a house. 

Although the expense of a change from hot water to 
steam is heavy, yet the advantages secured are so great and 
apparent that it will not be long before hot water as a heat- 
ing agent will be practically abandoned in every kind of 
building. ^ 



465 

INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT ISINGLASS. 

Isinglass consists of the dried swimming bladder of fishes. 
The bladders vary in shape, according to their origin, and 
they are prepared for the market in various ways. Some 
are simply dried while slightly distended, forming pipe 
isinglass. When there are natural openings in these tubes 
they are called pursers. When the swimming bladders are 
slit open, flattened, and dried, they are known as leaf isin- 
glass. Other things being equal, the value of a sample is 
determined by the amount of impurities present. These im- 
purities are ordinary dirt, mucus naturally present inside the 
bladder technically called grease, and blood stains. If the 
bladders^ were hung up to dry with the orifice downward, the 
mucus could be drained off; but usually the fishermen fear 
the reduction in weight, and take care to retain all they can. 
It is necessary to insist on having the bladders slit up and 
rinsed clean as soon as they are removed from the fish. This 
would so much increase the value of the product that the 
extra labor would be very profitable. Blood stains cannot 
be removed without injuring the quality. If any process 
could be devised effectual for this purpose, a valuable dis- 
covery would be made. 

The uses of isinglass are not very varied. The largest 
quantity is used by brewers and wine merchants for clarifying. 
This property is extraordinary, for gelatin, which seems chem- 
ically the same thing as isinglass, does not possess it. 

For clarifying purposes the isinglass is " cut " or dissolved 
in acid, sulphurous acid being used by brewers, as it tends to 
preserve the beer. When reduced to the right consistence, a 
little is placed in each cask before sending it out for consump- 
tion. ^ 

There seems to be only six isinglass cutters in England, 
all being in London. The sorted isinglass is very hard and 
difiicult to manipulate. It is soaked till it becomes a little 
pliable, and is then trimmed. Sometimes it is just pressed by 
hand on a board with a rounded surface ; at others it is run once 
between strong rollers to flatten it a little. The next process 
is that of rolling. Very hard steel rollers, powerful and 
accurately adjusted, are used. They are capable of exerting 
a pressure of 100 tons. Two areem ployed, the first to bring the 
isinglass to a uniform thickness, and the smaller ones, kept cool 
by a current of water running through them to reduce it to 



466 

little more than the thickness of wr itin g paper. From the finer 
rollers it comes in a beautifully transparent ribbon, many 
yards to the pound, " shot " like watered silk in parallel lines , 
about an inch broad. It is now hung up to dry in a separate 
room, the drying being an operation of considerable nicety. 
When sufficiently dried, it is stored till wanted for cutting, or 
it is sold as ribbon isinglass to all who prefer this form. 

MODERN USES OF TIN. 

The uses of tin have greatly increased during the last few 
centuries of our era. Salmon, in his splendid work on casting 
tin (1788), describes the methods of work, and mentions the 
objects manufactured from this metal. We see from the 
plates of his atlas that table services (spoons and forks) 
pitchers, jugs, candelabra, lamps, surgical instruments, chem- 
ical apparatus, boilers for dyeing scarlet, etc., were being put 
upon the market in the most varied forms of that epoch. 

Griffith, between i840and 1850, perfected the manufacture 
of tin utensils in a single piece. This industry became espe- 
cially developed in France from 1850 to i860. 

In i860 America began manufacturing impermeable boxes, 
without soldering, from single pieces of metal. 

To-day tin is being used in the manufacture of bronzes for 
guns, money and medals, and in the alloys used for making 
measures of capacity for liquids. Its unalterability in the air, 
and the harmlessness of its salts when they exist in small 
quantity, cause it to be employed in our day in the manufac- 
ture of culinary vessels and utensils. Advantage is taken of 
its malleability to form from it those thm sheets that are 
used as wrappers for chocolate, tea, etc. 

in the various bronzes that it forms with copper, we have 
evidence of the influence that relative proportions of the two 
metals have upon the properties of the alloy. Thus gun bronze, 
which contains ten parts of tin to ninety of copper, is remark- 
able for tenacity. The bronze of tom-toms and bells, which 
differs from the last named only in its larger proportion of 
tin (twenty to eighty of copper) is, on the contrary, very brit- 
tle, although it fortunately possesses greater sonorousness 
than gun metal does. On still further increasing the propor- 
tion of tin to thirty-three parts per sixty-seven of copper, we 
obtain a white alloy capable of taking a polish that causes it 
to be used for the manufacture of telescope mirrors. Upon 
uniting with tin, copper loses its ductility. The alloys of 
these two metals increase in density through being hardened, 
asi they do also by being hammered. 



467 

A mixture of twenty parts of tin with eig^^y of copper 
^ives an alloy which is brittle at a bright red heat and when 
cold, but which is malleable at a dark red heat. 

When alloyed with lead, the tin forms plumbers' solder. 
Associated with mercury, it gives the silvering of looking- 
glasses. Besides this, it enters into a host of fusible alloys or 
compositions, known under the general name of white metal. 
One of these alloys, composed of tin, antimony and copper, 
is very much used as a bushing for engine bearings. For this 
])urpose the following are very good proportions : Tin, 100; 
antimony, 10 ; copper, 10. It is also alloyed with antimony 
alone, or with bismuth. It serves for tinning copper and iron 
kitchen utensils. To this effect the wrought -iron utensils 
nre cleaned with sand and then wiped, and afterward im- 
niersed in a bath of molten tin, and finally rubbed with tow 
saturated v/ith sal-ammoniac. Food cooked in tin vessels has 
a slight fishy taste, because it dissolves a little oTthe tin, just 
as food prepared in iron contracts a slight taste of ink. 

Tin is used in enormous quantities also in the manufacture 
of tinplate. In order to prepare this, the sheet iron designed 
for the manufacture of it is cleansed by plunging into diluted 
sulphuric acid, which dissolves the pellicles of oxide. Then 
It is rubbed with sand and immersed in melted tallow, and 
afterward in a bath of tin covered with tallow. When taken 
out it is tinned, there having formed upon the surface of the 
sheet iron a true alloy of iron and tin covered with pure tin. 
Tin plate is as unalterable as tin itself, because the iron does 
not come into contact with the air at any point; but if, upon 
cutting it, we expose the iron, oxidation proceeds more rapidly 
than it would if the iron had not been tinned. 

Upon washing the surface of the tinplate with a mixture 
of hydrochloric and nitric acids, we remove the superficial 
layer,'and render visible the crystallized surface of the tin and 
iron alloy. We thus obtain what is called moire metallic or 
crystallized tinplate. 

It now remains for us to say a few words about the new 
and important use of tin for the preparation of phosphor 
bronze. 

In the melting of bronze the absorption of oxygen is 
very detrimental, the formation of an oxide of tin rendering 
the metal brittle. In former times an endeavor was made to 
prevent this oxidation by stirring the mass with wood, or by 
adding ' a little zinc to it ; but for the last fifteen years 
greater success has been obtained by the addition of a little 
phosphorus. This substance extraordinarily increases the 
compactness/' toughness and elasticity of the product, and 



468 

gives it, in addition, a beautiful golden color. Guns, 
statues, ornaments and bearings are now cast from phosphor 
bronze with the greatest success. 

Kunzel, of Dresden, has taken out a patent for an alloy 
composed one-half to three parts, by weight, of phosphorus, 
from four to fifteen of lead, from four to fifteen of tin, aad 
for the rest, copper up to lOo. 

Schiller & Sewald, of Graupen, prepare two kinds of 
phosphor bronze; one with 2^ and the other 5 per cent, o*" 
phospnorus. The demand for this article is daily becoming 
more extensive. 

The most important uses of tin are, in Asia, for tinning 
copper, and in Europe and America, for the manufacture of 
objects from tinplate. The manufacture of bronze and 
white metal likewise consumes a large quantity. 

USES OF MICA. 
The peculiar physical characteristics of mica, its resistance 
to heat, transparency, capacity of flexure and high electric 
resistance, adapt it to applications for which there does not 
appear to be any perfect substitute. Its use in windows, 
in the peep-holes on the furnaces used in metallurgical pro- 
cesses, as well as the ordinary use in stoves for domestic pur- 
poses, are examples of its adaptability to specific purposes 
which it does not seem to share with any other material. Its 
fitness for use in physical apparatus is represented by its 
application for the vanes on the Coulomb meter, recently in- 
vented by Prof. George Forbes, F. R. S. For electrical 
purposes mica has proved useful, acting as an insulator be- 
tween the segments of commutators of dynamos and safety 
fuses in lighting circuits, also as the base part of switches 
handling heavy currents, to obviate the dangers of ignition 
by the arc formed when the switch is changed. For this 
latter purpose it shares the field with sheets of slate. Both 
of these uses were first suggested a number of years ago by an 
insurance expert in America in the course of regulations gov- 
erning the safe installation of electric-light plants. As a 
lubricator, mica answers a very peculiar purpose for classes 
of heavy bearing, where the powdered mica serves a useful 
office in keeping the surface separate, thereby permitting the 
free ingress of oil. It is used in roof-covering mixtures in a 
powdered condition in combination with coal tar, ground 
steatite and other materials, its foliated structure tending to 
bond the material together. Not affected by ordinary chem- 
icals which are corrosive to many other substances, it has 



469 

been applied in the valves to sensitive automatic sprinklers, 
where a sheet of mica placed over a leather disk has proved 
to be non-corrosive, and without possibility of adhering to 
the seat, while the leather packing rendered the whole suffi- 
ciently elastic to provide a tight joint. 

IMPROVED PROCESS OF TINNING. 

An improved process of coating metals with tin, by Borthei 
and Holler, of IJamburg, is said (by a metropolitan contem- 
porary) to possess the advantage of preventing, or at least 
delaying, oxidation. The process can be employed with 
special advantage for tinning cast-iron cooking utensils, 
household and other implements of cast iron, as the employ- 
ment of poisonous enamel is avoided and a much higher 
degree of polish attained. The process can alsoj3e employed 
for protecting architectural or other iron decorations from 
rusting by the coating of tin or other metal, without detri- 
ment to the sharpness of the form, as is the case with the 
customary oil or bronze paints. In order to produce a per- 
fectly even coating of tin on cast iron, the same is first provided 
with a thin coating of chemically pure iron, regardless of the 
form of casting. This coating is produced in galvanic man- 
ner in a bath composed as follows : Six hundred grammes 
of sulphate of iron, FeS04, are dissolved in five liters of water, 
to which add a solution of about 2,400 grammes of carbonate 
of soda, Na2C03, in five liters of water. The precipitate of 
ferro-carbonate (FeCo3) resulting is dissolved in small quan- 
tities in so much concentrated sulphuric acid until the fluid 
has a green color. The bath is then rendered aqueous by 
adding about twenty liters of water. Blue litmus paper 
dipped in the bath must assume a deep claret color, and red 
litmus paper remains unchanged. fl» 

'^ The objects to be provided with a coating ot chemically 
pure iron are placed in the bath opposite to the abode of cast 
or wrought iron or iron ore, and both parts connected to the 
corresponding poles of a dynamo machine, electric battery, or 
other appropriate source of electricity. In a very short time 
the objects placed in the bath are covered with a coating of 
iron, the thickness of which depended on the duration of the 
action of the bath or the strength of electric current. The 
coated objects are then well rinsed in clear water, dried, then 
painted with, or immersed in, a solution of ammonia in 
chloride of zinc alone, and then immersed in a vessel contain- 
ing molten tin. The tin adheres with great tenacity to tlie 
prepared surface, and the surplus of tin can be readily removed 



470 

by a brush, or any other manner. If the object to be tinned 
is of such size, or so complicated in form, that it cannot be 
readily immersed in molten tin, it can be placed in a galvanic 
tin bath, which can be readily made in any desired size, and 
be provided vi^ith a layer of tin of desired thickness, which, 
after having been painted either with a solution of chloride of 
^inc or ammonia in chloride of zinc, can be heated to such a 
degree that the tin is equally melted on the object. 

In like manner objects cast or made of lead or other 
readily melting metal, which would lose their form by melt- 
ing when immersed in molten tin, are, previous to tinning, 
provided with a coating of pure iron, and are then provided 
with a coating of tin in a galvanic bath, as mentioned above, 
without being subjected to heat for melting the layer of tin 
deposited on the same. With objects of wrought or rolled 
iron,- or which do not require the before described treatment 
— id est, the production of a coating of chemically pure 
iron — it will be sufficient to carefully clean the same and 
paint them with a solution of ammonia or chloride of zinc 
or a concentrated solution of chloride of zinc. This tinning 
].irocess combines the advantage of simple manipulation and 
the great durability of the coating with cheapness of manu- 
facture, which is partially attained in the saving of tin. 

SOLDERING. 

The term soldering is generally applied when fusible 
alloys of lead and tin are employed for uniting metals. 
When hard metals which melt only above a red heat, such 
as copper, brass or silver, are used, the term brazing is some- 
times used. Hard-soldering is the art of soldering or uniting 
two metals or two pieces of the same metal together by 
means 'of a solder that is almost as hard and infusible as the 
metals to be united. In some cases the metals to be united 
are heated, and their surface united without solder by flux- 
ing the surfaces of the metals. This process is then termed 
burning together. Some of the hard-soldering processes are 
often termed brazing. Both brazing and hard-soldering is 
usually done in the open fire on the brazier's hearth. A 
soldered joint is more perfect and more tenacious as the 
point of the fusion of the solder rises. Thus, tin, which 
greatly increases the fusibility of its alloys, should not be 
used for solders, except when a very easy-running solder is 
wanted. Solders made with tin are not so malleable and 
tenacious as those prepared without it. The Egyptians sol- 
dered with lead as long ago as B. C. 1490, the time of Moses. 



471 

Pliny refers to the art, and says it requires the addition of 
tin to use as a solder. The tin came mainly from the Cas- 
siterides (Cornwall). Plumbers use solder composed of two 
parts of lead and one of tin, and a very slight variation in 
the quantities makes a very considerable difference in the 
working and also in the soundness of the joint. If a slight 
excess over the above proportion of lead is used, the solder 
is more difficult to work, and the joint when made fre- 
quently leaks, the water passing through the small cellules or 
pores in the metal, and the joint is then said to " sweat." If 
an excess of tin is used, the solder melts too easily, and con- 
siderable difficulty is found in keeping it on the joint, and it 
cools so suddenly that the joints always look rough and 
ragged at the ends. They sometimes require trimming up to 
make them look better ; this solder also keeps running, and 
then congealing, in such a way as to be difficult to keep 
it at a workable heat. Small portions of The metal also 
keep sticking to the cloth used for molding (technically 
called wiping) the joint or seam as the case may be. 

Plumbers' solder, with the above proportions, on being 
melted, and then allowed to cool, will generally exhibit sev- 
eral bright spots on its surface, due to the two metals partly 
separating. These bright spots are generally a very sure 
guide as to the proper quantities of each metal used. If 
none are seen, it is too coarse; and if too many are seen, it 
contains too much tin and is said to be too fine. If the spots 
are small the metal may not be good, although it may have 
beyond its proper quantity of tin; but if the spots are about 
the size of a threepenny piece the solder very rarely fails to 
work well. In uniting tin, copper, brass, etc., with any of 
the soft solders a copper soldering-bit is generally used. This 
tool and the manner of using it are well known. In 
many cases the work may be done more neatly without the 
soldering-bit by filing or turning the joints so that they fit 
closely, moistening them with the soldering fluid described 
hereafter, placing a piece of smooth tin foil between them, 
tying them together with binding wire, and heating the 
whole in a lamp or fire till the tin foil melts. Pieces of brass 
are often joined in this way so that the joints are invisible. 
With good soft solder almost any work may be done over a 
spirit lamp, or even a candle, without the use of a soldering- 
bit. Advantage may be taken of the varying degrees of 
fusibility of solders to make several joints in the same piece 
of work. Thus, if the first joint has been made with the 
fine tinners' solder, there would be no danger of melting it 
in making a ioint i>ear it with bismuth solder. The fusibil- 



472 

ity of soft solder is increased by adding l3ismuth to the com- 
position. An alloy of lead 4 parts, tin 4 parts, and bismuth 
I part, is easily melted; but this alloy may itself be soldered 
with an alloy of lead 2 parts, bismuth 2 parts, and tin i part. 
By adding mercury a still more fusible solder can be made. 
Equal parts of lead, bismuth and mercury, with two parts of 
tin, will make a composition which melts at 122 degrees 
Fahr. ; or an alloy of tin 5 parts, lead 3 parts, and bismuth 
3 parts, will melt in boiling water. In melting these solders 
melt the least fusible metal first in an iron ladle, then add the 
others in accordance with their infusibility. It is convenient 
— and in fact, often necessary — to have solders which will 
melt at different degrees of temperature, to avoid the risk of 
spoiling the work by subjecting it to too great a heat, when, 
with a little easy-flowing solder, there would be no dans^er. 

POINTS ON SOLDERING. 

For tinning soldering coppers nothing is bettev than a 
soft -burned brick to contain the tin and solder. Dig a cavity 
on the side two or three inches long, and wide enough to 
receive the soldering tool. Melt some solder in the cavity thus 
formed, and throw in some pieces of sal-ammoniac and rosin. 
See that the copper bits are hot enough to melt solder ; a 
great heat will not tin as well as a low one. Rub the tool 
on the brick, melting the solder, ammoniac and rosin. The 
brick scours the copper bright, and the flux causes the solder 
to adhere very easily. One of the worst things ever 
attempted is- to solder a dirty job with a dirty, untinned 
copper. 

See that the surfaces to be soldered are clean. If not, 
make them so by filing or scraping ; then protect the surfaces 
from oxidation by an application of flux or muriatic acid in 
which zinc has been dissolved. Have the soldering copper 
hot. Hold it two inches from your face, and the right 
degree of heat will soon be learned. When all of these 
conditions exist, the melted solder will flow along the seam 
with the greatest ease, leaving a smooth, well-finished surface 
behind it. > 

To do work in the best manner and the easiest, a flux 
should be provided for each metal to be soldered. The 
hydrochloric (muriatic) acid and zinc flux is worthless when 
rust is to be avoided, for in some cases the acid continues 
to act after the soldering is done, and in a few months may 
eat far enough to separate the solder from the work. In 
this case, of course, the joint falls apart. 



473 

In soldering zinc some use muriatic acid diluted with 
water for a flux, and the rusting action is to be feared in 
this instance, but may be lessened by adding soda carbonate 
(washing soda) to the acid. There are few pieces that can- 
not be soldered without the use of an acid flux, and rosin 
will do nearly as well if a little oil be added, or if the solder- 
ing copper be dipped in acid and then into oil before apply- 
ing it to the seam with rosin on it. 

Sal-ammoniac is the proper flux for copper, and this 
agent works well with tin, but it is not necessary, for rosin 
is all that is needed. Lead is perfectly fluxed by tallow (the 
plumbers call it " touch"), but may be soldered with either 
of the other fluxes. 

NEW METHOD OF BRONZING IRON. 

The following method is successful in producing a bronze- 
like surface which practica,lly prevents rust. All the 
methods as yet known for producing a bronze-like surface, by 
rubbing over the surface of the iron an acid solution of cop- 
per or an iron solution, letting it dry in the air, brushing off 
the rust produced in this way, and an abundant repetition of 
this method, give a more or less reddish-brown crust or rust 
on the iron body. Objects formed^^ iron can easily be 
covered with copper or brass by dipping them in the requisite 
solution, or by submitting them to the galvanic method. The 
surface so prepared, however, peels off in a short time, by 
exposure to moist air in particular. By the method given 
below it is possible to cover iron objects, especially such as 
have an artistic aim, with a fine bronze-like surface ; it resists 
pretty satisfactorily the influence of moisture, and one is, 
moreover, enabled to apply it to any object v>ith great ease. 
The clean, polished objects are to be exposed to the action of 
the vapors of a heated mixture of hydrochloric acid and 
nitric acid, in equal portions, for from two to five minutes; 
they are not to be shifted, and the temperature may range 
from 300^ to 350^ C. The heating is continued so long that 
the bronze-like surface is well developed on the surface of the 
objects. After the objects have cooled they should be 
well ruboed down with vaseline and again heated until the 
vaseline begins to decompose. When again cold they should 
be a second time treated with vaseline in the same way. If 
the vapor of a mixture of the two concentrated acicis is 
allowed to act on an iron object in this manner, a light red- 
dish-brown tone is devel()i:)ed. If some acetic acid be mixed 
with the two acids, and tlie va]^or of all the acids togetlicr be 



474 

allowed to act on the metallic surface, a fine bronze yellow 
color can be obtained. By using different mixtures of these 
acids every tint, from a dull red-brown to a light brown, and 
from a dull brownish yellow to light brown yellow, can be 
produced on the surface of the iron. In this way some 
T-rods for iron boxes were covered with a bronze-like surface, 
and at the end of ten months, although exposed during the 
whole time to the action of the acid fumes of a 'vb^ratory, 
they had undergone no trace of any change. 

MAMJFACTURE OF RUSSIAN SHEET IRON. 

There appears to be much misunderstanding in reference 
to the manufacture of sheet iron in Russia, and questions 
are frequently asked the writer : " What are the secrets con- 
nected with it ? " " How is it made ? " " Could admission be 
obtained to the iron works in the Urals, w^here the iron is 
made ? " It is difficult to understand why such questions 
should be asked by persons versed in the literature of 
iron and steel, for Dr. Percy wrote a vary excellent and 
accurate monograph on the subject a number of years ago. 

Not having had the opportunity of personally visiting the 
Russian iron works in the Urals, Dr. Percy's paper was com- 
piled from data furnished him by a number of persons w^ho 
had actually visited these sheet iron works. Since it has 
been my good fortune to have the opportunity of seeing 
some of these works in the Urals, but a short time ago, I 
will, at the risk of tellmg an old story, briefly describe the 
process of manufacture as I saw it. 

The ores used for the manufacture of this iron are mostly 
from the celebrated mines of Maloblagodatj, and average 
about the following chemical composition: Metallic iron, 
60 per cent. ; silica, 5 per cent. ; phosphorus from o. 15 to 0.06 
per cent. The ore is generally smelted into charcoal pig 
iron, and then converted into malleable iron by puddling or 
by a Franche-Comte hearth. Frequently, however, the 
malleable iron is nv^de directly from the ore to various kinds 
of bloomaries. 

The blooms or billets thus obtamed are rolled into bars 6 
inches wide, }^ inch thick and 30 inches in length. These 
bars are assorted, the inferior ones " piled " and re-rolled, 
while the others are carefully heated to redness and cross- 
rolled into sheets about thirty inches square, requiring from 
eight to ten passes through the rolls. . . These sheets are twice 
again heated to redness, and rolled in sets of three each, care 
being taken that every sheet before being pas?ed through the 



475 

rolls is brushed off with a wet broom made of fir, and at the 
same time that powdered charcoal is dextrously sprinkled 
between the sheets. Ten passes are thus made, and the 
resulting sheets trimmed to a standard size of twenty-five to 
fifty-six inches. After being sorted and the defective ones 
thrown out, each sheet is wetted with water, dusted with 
charcoal powder and dried. They are then made into pack- 
ets containing from sixty to one hundred, and bound up with, 
waste sheets. 

The packets are placed one at a time, with a log of wood 
at each of the four sides, in a nearly air-tight chamber, and 
carefully annealed for five or six hours. When this has been 
completed the packet is removed and hammered with a trip- 
hammer weighing about a ton, the area of its striking surface 
being about six to fourteen inches. The face of the hammer 
is made of this somewhat unusual shape in order to secure a 
wavy appearance on the surface of the packet. After the 
packet has received ninety blows, equally distributed over its 
surface, it is reheated and the hammering repeated in the 
same manner. Sometime after the first hammering the packet 
is broken and the sheets wetted with a mop, to harden the 
surface. After the second hammering the packet is broken, 
the sheets examined, to ascertain if any are welded together, 
and completely finished cold sheets are placed alternately 
between those of the packet, thus making a large packet of 
from 140 to 200 sheets. It is supposed that the interposition 
of these cold sheets produces the peculiar greenish color that 
the finished sheets possess on cooling. 

This large packet is then given what is known as the 
finishing or polishing hammering. For this purpose the trip- 
hammer used has a larger face than the others, having an 
area of about 17 to 21 inches. When the hammering has 
been properly done the packet has received 60 blows, equally 
distributed, and the sheets should have a perfectly smooth, 
mirror-like surface. The packet is now broken before cool- 
ing, each sheet cleaned with a wet fir broom to remove the 
remaining charcoal powder, carefully inspected, and the good 
sheets stood on their edges in vertical racks, to cool. These 
sheets are trimmed to regulation size {28 by 56 inches) and 
assorted into Nos. i, 2 and 3, according to their appearance, 
and again assorted according to weight, which varies from 
10 to 12 lbs. per sheet. The quality varies according to color 
and freedom from flaws or spots. A first-class sheet must be 
without the slightest flaw, and have a peculiar metallic gray 
color, and on bending a number of times with the fingers, 
very little or no scale is separated, as in the case of 



476 

orJinar}' sheet iroiL The peculiar property of Rusian sheet 
iron is the beautiful polished coating of oxides ( * glanz") 
which it possesses. If there is any secret in the process, it 
probably lies in the " trick " of giving this polish. As far as I 
was able to judge, from personal observation and conversa- 
tion with the Russian iron masters, the excellence of this 
sheet iron appeared to be due to no secret, but to a variety of 
conditions peculiar to and nearly always present in the 
Russian iron works of the Urals. Besides the few partic- 
ulars already noted in the above description of this process, it 
should be borne in mind that the iron ores of the Urals are 
particularly pure, and that the fuel used is exclusively char- 
coal and wood. Another and equally important considera- 
tion lies in the fact that this same process of manufacturing 
sheet iron has been carried on in the Urals for the last hun- 
dred years. As a consequence, the workmen have acquired a 
p>eculiar skill, the want of which has made attempts to manu- 
facture equally as good iron outside of Russia generally 
unsuccessful It is difficult to understand what effect the use 
of charcoal powder between the sheets, as they are roUed and 
haramered, has upon the quality. It is equally as difficult to 
imderstand the effect of the interposition of the cold-finished 
sheets upon the production of the polished coating of oxide. 
The Russian iron-masters seem to attribute the excellence of 
their product more to this peculiar treatment than to any 
other cause. One thing is 'quite certain, there is no secret 
about the process, and if the Russian sheet iron is so much 
sup>erior to any other, it is due to the combination of causes 
already indicated. 

THE LARGEST ELECTRIC LIGHT IX THE 
WORLD. 

The largest electric light in the world is on St Catharine's 
Point lighthouse. Isle of Wight. Some idea of the power of 
:his hght will be conveyed when it is known that the carbons * 
employed in electric arc lamps commonly used for street 
lighting are about ^ inch in thickness, while these have a 
diameter of nearly lYz iuches. 

There are two dynamos, and if both worked in coujunc- 
tion it is computed that the concentrated hght from the 
lantern would equal six milUons of candles. The induction 
arrangement of each machine consists of sixty permanent 
magnets, and each magnet is made up of eight steel plates. The 
armature, 2 ft. 6 iiL in diameter, is composed of five rings with 
twenty-foiu: bobbins in each, arranged in groups of four in 
tension and six in Quantity. 



477 



LUMBER MEASUREMENT TABLE. 



LENGTH 


LENGTH 


LENGTH 


LENGTH 


LENGTH 


LENGTH 


2x4 


2x6 


2x8 


2x10 


3x6 


3x8 


12 8 


12 12 


12 16 


12 20 


12 18 


12 24 


14 9 

16 II 


14 14 
16 16 


14 19 
16 21 


14 23 
16 27 


14 21 
16 24 


14 28 
16 32 


18 12 


18 18 


18 24 


18 30 


18 27 


18 36 


20 13 


20 20 


20 27 


20 33 


20 30 


20 40 


22 15 


22 22 


22 29 


22 37 


22 33 


22 44 


24 ID 
26 17 


24 24 
26 26 


24 32 
26 35 


24 40 
26 43 


24 36 
26 39 


24 48 
26 52 


3x10 


3x12 


4x4 


4x6 


4x8 


6x6 


12 30 


12 36 


12 16 


12 24 


12 32 


12 36 


14 35 

16 40 

18 45 


14 42 
16 48 

18 54 


14 19 

16 21 

18 24 


14 28 

16 32 
18 36 


14 37 
16 43 

18 48 


14 42 
16 48 
18 54 


20 50 


20 60 


20 27 


20 40 


20 53 


20 60 


22 55 


22 66 


22 29 


22 44 


22 59 


22 66 


24 60 
26 65 


24 72 
26 78 


24 32 

26 35 


24 48 
26 52 


24 64 
26 69 


24 72 
26 78 


6xS 


8x8 


8x10 


loxio 


10x12 


12X12 


12 48 


12 64 


12 80 


12 100 


12 120 


12 144 


14 56 
16 64 

18 72 


14 75 
16 85 
18 96 


14 93 
16 107 
18 120 


14 117 
16 133 

18 150 


14 140 
16 160 
18 iSo 


14 168 
16 192 
18 216 


20 80 


20 107 


20 133 


20 167 


20 200 


20 240 


22 88 


22 117 


22 147 


22 183 


22 220 


22 264 


24 96 
26 104 


24 128 
26 139 


24 160 
26 173 


24 200 
26 217 


24 240 
26 260 


24 288 
26 312 



A blast at 800 degrees temperature will ?gnite charcoal ; 
900 degrees will igii'*^" 2oke, and 1,300 degrees will ignite 
anthracite. 



i 



478 



HOUSE BUILDING DEPARTMENT. 



PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS. 



HINTS TO BUILDERS. 

It seems to be a natural instinct with every one to desire ta 
own his own home. There is a charm in the word " home " 
that can be felt only by those who do o^^'n their own houses. 
No matter how poor a man may be, if he can go ho7?ie at 
night after his day's work is finished, there is a feeling of 
rest and security that amply repays any privations that may 
have been suffered in order to secure and pay for a home. In 
the succeeding pages we present designs for a large number of 
houses that will be found in every way suitable for any part 
of the country. They have bQen most carefully selected 
with a view to suiting all classes and tastes. For the harid_ 
some designs Nos. 4, 9, 17, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 
40, we are indebted to the kindness of The National Builder,. 
Full detail working plans of these houses may be obtained 
from The National Builder Company, No. ii6LaSalle street, 
Chicago, 111., by remitting the small sum of 25 cents each.. 
We desire that all who purchase this book should understand 
why we do not give the price of each house. Some books on 
architecture advertise to do this. We have left out the cost 
of the different houses for the reason that the cost of lumber, 
material and labor, differs so greatly in different parts of the 
country, that a sum which would be the cost price of any par- 
ticular house in Illinois, would 4ifi"er very greatly from the cost 
of the same house in Missouri. It will be an easy matter to- 



479 

take the specifications we supply, to any lumber merchant, and 
get an estimate on the quantity required, according to the 
quality. We shall now proceed to give a few valuable hints 
to those contemplating building, and to those o^wming and 
living in their own homes. As " brevity is the soul of wit," 
we shall make these ' hints ' as brief as possible and to the 
point. 

Build within your means. It is better to build a plain 
house and pay for it, than one that will keep you in hot 
water till it is paid for. It is an easy matter to add improve- 
ments to a house as they appear necessary and you can 
afford it. 

Do not copy your neighbor's house. It witt almost surely 
cause unpleasantness, and you will always find it more agree- 
able to be on good terms with your neighbor. See to it 
that your house is built so that you get plenty of ventila- 
tion and sunshine. Nothing is more important. Be sure 
and arrange to have the living-rooms on the sunny side. It 
is both pleasanter and healthier. Do not have stationary 
wash-bowls in sleeping-rooms. 

Be sure and arrange your house so that at any future 
time it may be readily enlarged with additions at the least 
expense. This is an important item. 

Do not fail to have a legal contract, covering every 
•detail, drawai up and signed by your contractor and builder, 
and properly witnessed. A proper observance of this may 
:save you a great deal of trouble and many dollars. Do not 
attempt to vie with rich neighbors. Do not sacrifice com- 
fort for the sake of appearances. You will certainly suffer 
for it in the long run. 

Do not have gingerbread work in or upon the house, nor 
allow poor work or shams of any kind to enter into its con- 
:struction. 

Arrange to have large rooms. They will give much 
better satisfaction than small rooms and more of them. 



I 



48o 

DESIGN No. 1. 




E%ve Moom Cottage. 



^■"■- ggJcf — - — ^tj 




Very Cheap and Comfortable* 



48i 

DESIGN No. 2. 




Eight Jioom IHvelling, 




Suitable for Farm or Village. 



482 
DESIGN No. 3. 





A very convenient Five Room CoUage* 



483 
DESIGN No. 4. 




FRONT ELEVATION. 




FLOOR PLAN. 

A Convenient and Cheap Cottage. 

.Size — 215^ feet deep, 25 feet wide. 




An attractive and convenient Eight JRoom Cottage, 



48s 

DESIGN No. 6. 




A convenient Six Moom Souse, 

(See Plans on next page.) 



487 
DESIGN No. 7. 




jij 



•d very Cheap House for small Farm or Village TenemenU 



DESIGN No. 8. 




489 




Second Story 9 Design No. 8. 



To find the number of bricks required in a building: Eule— Multiply 
the number of cubic feet by 22)^. The number of cubic feet is found by 
multiplying the length, height and thickness (in feet) together. Bricks 
are usually made 8 inches long, 4 inches wide and 2 inches thick ; hence 
it requires 27 bricks to make a cubic foot without mortar, but it is gen- 
erally assumed that the mortar fills 1-6 of the space. 

Partitions unsupported from underneath the floors should be supported 
from the walls by means of a simple truss. This can be made by setting 
two pieces of scantling into the walls on either side, at the floor, to abutt 
against each other at the ceiling or against a collar-beam over the doors. 
This plan will obviate the sinking of floors so often seen under partitions. 

Putty, for plastering, is a very fine cement made of lime only. It is thus 
prepared : Dissolve in a small quantity of water, as two or three gallons, 
an equal quantity of fresh lime, constantly stirring it with a stick until the 
lime be entirely slaked, and the whole becomes of a suitable consistency, 
so that when the stick is taken out of it, it will but just drop therefrom ; 
this, being sifted or run through a hair sieve, to take out the gross parts 
of the lime, is fit for use. Putty differs from fine stuff in the manner of 
preparing it, and its being used without hair. 




FRONT ELEVATION.' 



QViNG^Qflf 



^^' KITCHEr 



^ I 



-S=8F 






^ 

' 1 


C»<A«8« 


1 


■ "■ f 

i i 

i 

i 


L j;::::: 


,& 







FIRST FLOOR. 



SECOND FLOOR. 



Size— 30 ft. deep, 21 ft. wide. 



A MODEL COTTAGE. 



491 

DESIGN No. 10, 





TQTCREIl 



R^ DiNmawjOM 

PARLOU "^ jg^jg 

1 







ZiSQW 



BED ROOU 



ThU can easily be made larger by making it all two 8torie$ 
hight which would give quite a large hotise. 



m 



492 

DESIGN No. 11. 




A very handsome and convenient Sev^n Bo<nn Residence. 



493 

DESIGN No. 12, 






Design 12 is a very well arranged, large House, capable of 

euscommodcUing a large family, thoroughly provided 

with closets, etc. 



MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
The following table will often be found convenient, taking inside di- 
mensions : 
A box 24 tn.x24 in. x 14.7 will contain a barrel of 31 J^ gallons. 
A box 15 in. x 14 in. x 11 in. will contain 10 gallons. 
A box 834 ^- X 7 in. x 4 in. will contain a gallon. 
A box 4 in. x 4 in x 3.6 in. will contain a quart. 
A box 24 in. x 28 in. x 16 in. will contain 5 bushels- 
A box 16 in. x 12 in. x 11.2 in. vdll contain a busheL 
A box 12 in. x 11.2 in 8 in. will contain a half busheL 
A box 7 in. x 6.4 in. x 12 in. will contain a peck. 
A box 8.4 in. x 8 in.x4 in. wiU contain a haJi peck, or 4 dry qnarte. 
A box 6 in. x 5 3-5 in. , and 4 in. deep, wiU contain a half gaUon. 
A box 4 in. x 4 in., and 2 1-10 deep, will contain a pint 



495 

DESIGN No. 13. 




Same size cm No, 11, dijferenthj arranged, 



496 

DESIGN No. 14. 




Convenient Eight Boom levelling. 



497 

DESIGN No. 15. 




A Cheap Village or City Mmise where ground is limited. 




OftOUNO rLOOR. 

(Tor Plan of Secona Story see opposite Page.) 



49^ 




SECOND FLOOR 



DESIGN No. 16. 




A good Farm or Village Hotise^ tmth room, well utilized* 



499 
DESIGN No. 17. 




FRONT ELEVATION. 







FLOOR PLAN. 



A Beauti-Pul and Convenient Cottage. 

Size — 42 feet deep, 20 feet wide. # 



500 





n 


BED ROOM P 






ildl 


' lUHmra BOOM. 


l!i 


ihQxJS 1 




GECOtiDFLOOa 



Plans of Design No* IQ^ 



DESIGN No. 18 




501 




Plans far Design No. 18» 



DIMENSIONS OF ONE ACRE. 

A square, whose sides are 12,649 rods, or 69.57 rods, or 208.71 feet long, 
contains one acre. Table of dimensions of rectangle containing one acre : 

RODS. 



1 


X 160 


1% X 106% 


2 X 80 


2% X 64 


8 


X bSK 


SYz X 45 5-7 


4 X 40 


4}^ X 35 5-9 


5 


X 32 


51/^ X 29 1-11 


6 X 26% 


61^ X 24 8-13 


7 


X 22 6-7 


7J/2 X 211/3 


8 X 20 


8}^ X 1814-17 


9 


X 17 7-9 


9J^ X 16 16-19 


10 X 16 


101^ X 15 5-21 


11 


X 14 6-11 


11>^ X 13 21-33 


12 X 13H 


121^ X 12 4-5 
1213-20 X 1213-20 



502 

DESIGN No. 19. 




-4 very Cheap and convenient House, 




503 
DESIGN No, 20, 




A Model One Story Souse* 




KIT0REH, t tfn- 



Qimra Rooii. 



sfin *" _ 'nil 

"^■1 j I iff =* *** 



504 

DESIGN No. 21. 




S05 

DESIGN No. 22. 




A beautiful Village Residence. 





Second Story Plan Design Ho, 22, 



NUMBER OF TREES REQUIRED PER ACRE. 



4 feet apart each way. 

5 " " . 

6 " " . 
8 " " . 

10 

12 " " . 



.2,720 
.1,742 
.1,200 



325 



20 
25 
430 30 



15 feet apart each way. 

18 



33 



200 

135 

110 

70 

50 

40 



Hay Me asube.— About 500 cubic feet of well-settled hay, or about 700 
of new mown hay, will make a ton. To estimate amount of hay in mow 
— ^Ten cubic yards of meadow hay weigh a ton. When the hay is taken 
out of old stacks, 8 or 9 yards will make a ton. Eleven or 12 cubic yards 
of clover, when dry, make a ton. {ISfote. — The only accurate method to 
measure hay is to weigh it, since two quantities equal in bulk will never 
weigh alike. Any rule is simply an approximation.) 



507 

DESIGN No. 23. 




Jin attractive and Cheap Village or Country Church, 



UUUUUUUUUilJ 

AISDE 




Building contracts, as all other business arrangements, should be writ- 
ten. A few moments' time spent in stating, clearly and concisely, what 
is expected of each party will often save delays and annoyances during 
the progress of the work and endless litigation after it. The mechanic's 
lien laws are a sufficient protection to the contractor or material-man, but 
their enforcement is much more simple and prompt if action can be based 
on a written contract. 



1 



So8 

DESIGN No. 24. 




Floor, Wall and Roof Measure.— To find the number of square 
yards in a floor or wall: Bule — Multiply the length by the width or 
height (in feet), and divide the product by 9; the result will be square 
yards. 



509 
DESIGN No. 55. 




Cheap Horse Bam, 




To find the contents of a corn crib : Rule — Multiply the number of 
cubic feet by 4)^ and point off one decimal place — the result will be the 
answer in bushels. How many bushels will a crib hold that is 48 feet 
long, 7>^ feet wide and 8)^ feet high?— 48X7 >^X 83^ =3, 060 cubic feet; 
3,060X4)^=12,240 i 12,240+1530=1377. bushels, answer. 



^ 



;io 



DESIGN 




A Finely Arraiiged Combination J^nu 
(Tor Plan see opposite Page.) 



ESTIMATES OF MATERIALS. 



33^ barrels of fime wQl do 100 square yards plastering, two c 
2 " - - 100 - - ooecoat 

132 bushels of hair " 100 « • ^ 

13^ yards good sand " 100 « « ^ 

}i barrel of plaster (stncoo), will bard-finish 100 sqnare yards plastering' 

1 barrel of lime vrill lay 1,000 bride (It takes good lime to do it) 

2 ' " 1 cord rabble stone. 

33" " 1 perch • (estim&tingi^ c'dtoperch.) 

To every barrel of Ume estimate abont % yards of good sand for 
plastering and brick work. 



AMOUNT OF PAINT REQUIRED FOR A GIVEN SURFACE. 

It is impossihle to give a role that will apply in all cases, as the amo 
varies with the kind and thickness of the paint, the kind of woodorofl 
material to which it is applied, the age of the surface, etc. The foil 
is an approximate rule : Divide the number of square feet of surface 1 
2'":'. . The result will be the number of gallons of liquid paint required to 
give two coats; or, divide by 18 and the result will be the number of 
pounds o| pure ground white lead required tc^ give three coats. 




5" 






fl 



' CASm&GE EQQUi 




I*lan of Barti^ Design yo, 26, 



512 

DESIGN No. 27. 




A Model Besidetice, (Front Elevation,) 



WOOD MEASURE. 

To find the contents of Cord Wood; multiply the length, width and 
height together and divide the product by 128. 

Sow many Cords in a pile of Wood 4 ft. wide, 5 ft. high and 24 ft. long? 
4 X 5 X 24 = 480 (cu. ft.) — 128 = 334 cord& 




No, 27,— Model Residence, (Side Elevation,) 



^tm^d^^Mi 




514 

To find the Circumference of a Circle ; multiply the diamr- 
eter by 3.1416. 

To find the Area of a Circle ; multiply the square of the 
diameter by .7854. 

To find the Surface of a Globe ; multiply the square qf 
the diameter by 3.1416. 

To find the Solidity of a Globe ; multiply the cube of tJie 
diameter by .5236. 




eEOTION. KOOF AND ATTIO FLAN* 

No* 27>^Model Residence* 



BRICK 

are usually made 8 inches lon# 4 inches wide, and 2 inches thick. 

To the cubic foot, it takes 15 for an eight inch, 22^ for a twelve inch, 
and 30 for a sixteen inch Wall. The mortar filling up about one-sixth of 
the space. Laid flat ways, it takes 4^2 to the sq. ft. 

How many Brick wiU it take to build a 1 156 X 20 X l^a = 4160 cu. ft. 
house, whose walls are 156 ft. long. 20 ft. Less 640 = 3520 - 

high and 16 inches (l^s ft.) thick ; deduct- j 22^2 

ing 640 Gu. ft. for doors and windows? | Ans. 79200 brick. 



5i6 

DESIGN No. 28. 




'Model Combination Bam, 



517 
DESIGN No. 29. 




« CSICAGO COTTAGJB **^Front Elevation. 



Si8 



^7?agta*4v_ 




^ ft ■ i ^ragir i-i ■■ 



521 

DESIGN No. 30. 




522 




Plan Bhowing changes required for 
six-room house. 




ygiTgKrn. rLijQH, i&l Aja 



JSTo. 30»^JFloor Bla/na of Modem Eight Boom CotUige* 

plans of this Cottage furnished by Palliser, Palliser & Co.* 
Architects, Bridgeport, Conn. 



524 




fiAMMtNT- gfAM. ff Tf J r » R D-D F P UUSI 

1*. INo. 30,-^Floor Plans of Modem Bight JSoom Cottage. 

Plans of this Cottage furnished b^Palliser. Palliser & Co., 
Architects, Bridgeport, Conn. 



525 
DESIGN No. 31. 




FRONT ELEVATION. 




FLOOR PLAN. 



MULTUM IN PARVO COTTAGE. 

Size — 23 feet deep, 20 feet %\ icie. 



520 

DESIGN No. 32. 




A Handsome and 
Commodious Res- 
idence. 

size — 43 feet deep, 20 feet wide. 



5^/ 
DESIGN No. 33. 




FRONT ELEVATION. 




FLOOR PLAN. 

A Vanv Han 'some Cottage with no Waste 
of Room. 

Size — 46 feet deep, 24 feet wide. 



528 
DESIGN No. 34. 




"^^ i ilil il '= :^ 



OAKLAND COTTAGE. 



529 
DESIGN No. 34. 




FLOOR PLAN. 



OAKLAND COTTAGE. 



530 
DESIGN No. 35. 




FLOOR PLAN-. 

ROSEBUD COTTAGE. 

Size — 26 feet deep, 21 feet wide. 



531 
DESIGN No. 36. 




CANADIAN COTTAGE i^ 



< 

I" 
o 
o 



Q 
< 

< 
o 




532 



13 



KITCHEN 

11. Q X 12 



cSz) 



I 



Pantry or 

' C l O G 



3 X 6. 6 I 



CLOS. 

3X6 



DINING OR 
SITTING ROOM 

11 6 X Ti 



A 




BED ROOM 

n r. 11 



1 



I 



HALL 

e X 11 



Y^ 



PARLOR 
73 X 13. 6 



PORCH 

6 X 9. 6 



:^£B 



Kjm: 



First Floor 



533 



DESIGN No. 36. 



27 



[^ 



BED ROOM 

8. 6 X 14 



CLOS. 

2.6 X 8 



BED ROOM 

J/ X 12 



HALL 



CLOS. 

2.6 X 6. 6 



CLOS. 

2.6 X 6 I 



CLOS. 

3X6 



BED ROOM 
il3 X 13.6 



SECOND FLOOR TLAN. 



CANADIAN COTTAGE. 



J. 




i 



!.v^^ 



535 
DESIGN No. 38. 




il^ti. 



FERNWOOD COTTAGE 



536 



FERNWOOD COTTAGE. 



j ==r 



L ^±0^ 



KITCHEN 

f2X J2-6 



PANTRY CHINA 

6 jr 4 n 4X4 



a 



IL 



1 



LIVING ROOM 



VEST. 

4-6X4 6 



\ 



PARLOR 

14X16-0 



B 



1.1. £^^1 



I 



CeUtnff d<> 



FLOOR PLAN. 




FRONT ELEVATION. 



BUENA VISTA COTTAGE. 



DESIGN No. 39. 




Buesia Vista Ootta-ge 



BUENA VISTA COTTAGE. 



539 
DESIGN No. 40. 




KENWOOD VILLA. 



540 
DESIGN No. 40. 



■ itf 






1 



^TfisZ yniff.i 



^ 



^ 






^aJi ^* 



i 



k 



im to 






I 



70 !/Trn£? ^ 
ft 6 « /iT. • 



I 








KENWOOD VILLA. 



GROUND PLA:*, 



541 
DESIGN No. 40. 



m- 



■=rTr ■« -11^^ ■■ »» ■■ 






^S 






oin 



I a t*H c 



ci ».• i 



i ''•; 



-^ 



_n 



^ 






y^/-? f*'*^' 



E 







=M ^ ^- 




WK8T tX>OK Pb:Ji. 



KENWOOD VILLA. 



542 

SPECIFICATIONS. 

We present in the following pages a list of specifications 
for the houses, etc., illustrated from page 480 to page 542 
of this book. They will be found a complete list of materials, 
and any one who may desire to build according to the follow- 
ing plans may feel perfectly secure in buymg the materials 
according to these specifications. For the very handsome 
designs illustrated on pages 490, 499, 525, 526, 527, 528, 530, 
53^ 534, 535, 537, and 539, we are indebted to the 
kindness of The N'ational Builde?-^ published at 116 La Salle 
street, Chicago. The National Builder- is devoted to the 
interests of those who contemplate building homes, and to 
internal decorations. We have also made arrangements 
with the above paper whereby any one of our readers who 
may wish to build from any of the designs illustrated on the 
above specified pages can obtain, by remitting the very S7?iall 
sum of twenty -five cents to The National Builder, full detail 
working plans and co7nplete specifications of any one of these 
twelve beautiful designs. When it is known that the 
usual cost of an architect's plans will average at least $50. 
we fee] sure that this grand offer will be appreciated. In 
sendi7ig for these detail working plajis it will be ?iecessary 
for you to state that you have purchased a copy of thU book. 



DESIGN No. I. 

2 ps. 6x8 22; 3 ps. 6x8 14; 2 ps. 6x8 12; 16 ps. 2x8 14; 17 ps. 2x6 
14; I ps. 2x6 18; 3 ps. 2x6 12; 52 ps. 2x4 16; 32 ps. 2x4 14; 53 ps. 2x4 
12; 25 ps. 2x4 10; 900 ft. rough sheathing; i,2cx) ft. sheathing d i s; 
1,400 ft. siding; 900 ft. flooring; 7,000 shingles; 800 ft. finishing; 150 
ft wainscoting: 60 ft. ^ ceiling; 4,700 laths; 3 doors, 2 8x6 8, \%, No. 
1; 8 doors, 2 6X.6 6, i^ No. i; 7 windows 12x28 4 It. ; 2. windows 12x24 
4 It. ; 4 ps. 2x8 18, d and b: 220 ft. O G base; 500 ft. O G casing; 130 
lbs. pi. paper; 120 lbs. tar paper; 2 cellar windows, 8x10 3 It. : 2 ps. 
4x4 16; 150 ft. 3^ in. O G crown molding; 150 ft. i^xi3^ in. Scotia; 
48 ft. large drip; 48 ft. 1^x2^ in. nosing; 130 ft. blind stop; 130ft. 
parting strip; 130 ft. 1% O G stop; 170 ft. i^{ O G stop; 48 ft. i^x2>^ 
in. cap; 58 ft. ^xi in. Scotia; 48 ft. ^ in. quarter-round; i cord stone, 
i2-in. wall; 800 brick; 15 gal. paint; 9 bbls. lime; i bbl. stucco; 3 bu. 
hair; i bbl. cement; nails, 50 lbs. 2od, 100 lbs. lod, 50 lbs. 8d, 20 lbs. 
6d, 25 lbs. 3d com., 30 lbs. 3d fine, 25 lbs. lod casing; 11 mortise locks; 
II pair butts; 2^ doz. window springs; 2 doz. wardrobe hooks; 5 6-iii. 
thimbles. Main part 14x22, 12 ft. ; ell, 12x14, 8 ft. with porch. 



DESIGN No. 2. 

2 ps. 6x8 22; 2 ps. 6x8 18; 3 ps. 6x8 14; 4 ps. 2x8 18; 60 ps. 2x8 14; 
» *?«. 4x4 16; 83 ps. 2x4 10; 37 ps. 2x4 12; 40 ps. 2.X4 14; 43 ps. 2x4 16; 



543 

39 ps. 2x4 18; 1,500 ft. sheathing, d i s; 940 ft. rough sheathing; 1,700 
ft. siding; 1,600 ft. flooring; 8,000 shingles; 1,000 ft. finishing; 120 ft. 
wainscoting; 120 ft. % ceiling; 8,000 lath; 4 doors, 2 8x6 8, i^. No. i; 
13 doors, 2 6x6 6, i^ No. i; 6 windows 12x24 4 It. ; 9 windows 12x28 
4 It. ; 5 ps. 2x8 18 d and b; 400 ft. O G base; 750 ft. O G casing; 165 
lbs. pi. paper; 125 lbs. tar paper; 2 cellar sash, 8x10 3 It. ; 170 ft. 45^ 
in. O G crown molding; 170 ft. 2^ in. O G crown molding; 80 ft. 
large drip; 80 ft. ij^x2)^ in. nosing; 220 ft. parting strip; 220 ft. i^ O 
G stop; 220 ft. blind stop; 300 ft. i^ O G stop; 40 ft. 1^x2^ in. cap; 
40ft. ^xi in. Scotia; 40 ft. ^ in. quarter-round; i cord stone, 12 in. 
high; 1,300 brick; 25 gal. paint; 16 bbls. lime; i bbl. stucco; 4 bu. 
hair; i bbl. cement; nails, 60 lbs. 2od ; 140 lbs. lod; 35 lbs. 3d; 25 lbs. 
6d; 50 lbs. 8d com., 60 lbs. 3d fine; 25 lbs. lod casing; 17 mortise locks; 
17 pr. butts and screws; 3^ doz. window springs; 3 doz. wardrobe 
hooks; 4 6-in. thimbles. Main part 14x22, 14 ft. high; ell part 14x18 
12 ft. high, with porch. 



DESIGN No. 3. 

2 ps. 6x8 26; 5 ps. 6x8 16; 54 ps. 2x8 16; 13 ps. 2x6 16; 2 ps. 4x4 
18; 17 ps. 2x4 20; 47 ps. 2x4 18; 62 ps. 2x4 16; 28 ps. 2x4 14; 83 ps. 
2x4 12; 1,800 ft. sheathing, d i s; 1,200 ft. sheathing; 2,100 ft. siding; 
1,600 ft. flooring; 10,000 shingles; 1,260 ft. finishing; 160 tt. wain- 
scoting; 120 ft. % ceiling; 7,600 lath; 3 doors 2 8x6 8, i^ No. i; 10 
doors 2 6x6 6, 1% No. i; 8 windows 12x28, 4 It. ; 4% window 12x244 
It.; 4 ps. 2x8 18 d and b; 380 ft. O G base; 600 ft. O G casing; 200 
lbs. pi. paper; 165 lbs. tar paper; 2 cellar sash, 8x10 3 It.; 200ft. 4% 
in. O G crown molding; 190 ft. 2^ in. O G crown molding; 48 ft. 
large drip; 48 ft. 15^x2^^ in. nosing; 48 ft. 1^x2 J^ in. cap; 48 ft. ^xi 
in. Scotia; 48 ft. ^ in. quarter-round, 200 ft. blind stop; 180 ft. 
parting strip; 180 ft. 1^3 O G stop; 230 ft. 1% O G stop; 1% cords 
stone 15 in. high; 900 brick; 23 gal. paint; 15 bbls. lime; i bbl. stucco; 
4 bus. hair; i bbl. cement; nails, 100 lbs. 2od, 200 lbs. lod, 60 lbs. 8d, 
30 lbs. 6d, 30 lbs. lod casing, 40 lbs. 3d com., 60 lbs. 3d fine; 13 
mortise locks; 13 pr. butts: 3 doz. window spring bolts; 3 doz. 
wardrobe hooks; 5 thimbles 6-in. Main part 16x26, 16 ft. high; ell part 
16x16, 9 ft. high, porch on the front of kitchen. 



DESIGN No, 5. 

2 ps. 6x8 26; 2 ps. 6x8 22; 2 ps. 6x8 20; i ps. 6x8 16; 22 ps. 2x8 20; 
II ps. 2x8 16; 17 ps. 2x6 16; 2 ps. 4x4 18; 15 ps. 2x4 20: 88 ps. 2x4 18; 
94 ps. 2x4 16; 45 ps. 2x4 14; 34 ps. 2x4 12; 10 ps, 2x4 10; 2,150 ft. 
sheathing, d i s; 1,600 ft. rough sheathing; 2,500 ft. siding; 1,830 ft. 
flooring; 13,000 shmgles; 1,250 ft. finishing; 180 ft. wainscoting: 150 
ft. ^ ceiling; 10,000 lath; i door 2 10x6 10, glazed and transom; 2 
doors 2 8x6 8, i^ No. i ; 18 doors 2 6x6 6, i^ No. i ; 8 windows, 12x28 
4 It ; 5 windows, 12x24, 4 It- ; 4 P^- 2x8 18 d and b; 540 ft. O G base; 
900 ft. O G casing; 240 lbs. pi. paper; 220 lbs. tar paper; 2 cellar sash,* 
8x10 3 It.; 200 ft. 4% in. O. G. crown molding; 200 ft. 2^ in. O G 
crown moldrftg; 44 ft. 1^x2^ in. cap; 44 ft. %xi in. Scotia; 44 ft. |^ 
in quarter-round; 64 ft. large drip; 64 ft. \]{x-2% in. nosing: iSo ft. 
i}^ O G stop; 180 ft. parting strip; 200 ft. blind stop; 380 ft. \% O G 
stop; newel stair rail and balusters; 1 3^2 cords stone, 12 in. high; 900 
brick; 27 gals, paint; 21 bbls. lime; 2 bbls. stucco; 5 bu. hair; 2 bbls. 
cement; nails, 100 lbs. 2od, 200 lbs. lod, 60 lbs. 8d, 40 lbs. 6d, 50 lbs. 



544 

3d com., 40 lbs. lod casing, 75 lbs. 3d fine; 19 mortise locks; 21 pairs 
h"i&cs: 2% doz. window springs; 4 doz. wardrobe hooks; 5 thimbles, 
^in. Main part 20x26 ft. high; ell, 16x22 9 ft. high, with porch. 



DESIGN No. 6. 

3 ps. 6x8 20; 4 ps. 6x8 16; 2 ps. oxS iS; sops. 2x8 iS; 24 ps. 2x8 
20; 5 ps. 2x8 16; 4 ps. 4x4 18; 10 ps. 2x8 14; 4 ps. 4x6 20; 27 ps. 2x4 
18; 136 ps. 2x4 16; 20 ps. 2x4 14; 71 ps. 2x4 12; 82 ps. 2x4 10; 1,750 
f:. sheathing, d i s; 1,800 fL rough sheathing; 2,000 ft. siding; 2,500 
f:. flooring; 15,000 shingles ; 1,300 fL finishing; 180 ft. J^ wainscoting; 
320 ft. ^ ceiling; 9,000 lath; i glazed door and transom; 2 doors, 2 
8x6 8, i}i: 10 doors, 2 6x6, i%; 5 doors, 2 0x5 o, in. batten; 11 win. 
12x28, 4 It. ; 6 \*-in. 12x24, 4 It. ; 5 ps. 2x8 18 d and b; 450 f t. O G base; 
720 ft. O G casing; 200 lbs. pi. paper; 250 lbs. tar paper; 2 eel. sash, 
8x10, 3 It.; 200 ft. 4% in. O G crown molding; 200 ft. 2^2 in. O G 
crown molding; 80 ft. large drip; 80 ft. i^xzjA in. nosing; 250 ft. 
blind stop; 240 ft. parting strip; 240 ft. i^ O G stop; 288 ft. ij^ 
O G stop; 50 ft- xy^ji2% in. cap; 50 ft. ^xi in. Scotia; 50 ft. ^ in. 
quarter-ronnd ; 1% cords stone, 12 in.; 1,300 brick; 25 gal. paint; 16 
bbls. lime; i bbl. stucco; 5 bu. hair; i bbl. cement; nails, 100 lbs. 2od, 
200 lbs. lod, 60 lbs. 8d, 40 lbs. 6d, 50 lbs. 3d com., 30 lbs. lod casing, 
70 lbs. 3d fine; 13 mortise locks; 13 pair 35^x3^^ butts; 5 rim latches; 
5 rim 2x2 butts; 4^ \*Tn. spring bolts; '3 doz. wardrobe hooks; 4 
thimbles. Main part 17-6x34; ell part 16x15-6, 10 ft. hi^h. ^ pitch 
roof, with porch, 4 ft. , 4 gables and front veranda. 



DESIGN No. 7. 

2 ps. f-xS 20; 2 ps. oxS iS; 42 ps. 2xS 18; 8 ps. 2x4 18; 42 ps. 
2x4 if: if ps. 2x4 14; 96 ps. 2x4 12; 22 ps. 2x4 10; 1,280 ft. 
sheathing, d i s; 750 ft. rough sheathing; 1,500 ft. siding; 1,370 ft. 
flooring; 6^000 shingles; 680 ft. finishing; 140 ft. % wainscoting; 
5,700 lath; 2 doors, 2 8x6 8, i^ No. 1; 11 doors, 2 6x6 6, i^ No. i ; 6 
win. i2Jt28, 4 It. ; 4 win. 12x24, 4 It. ; 3 ps. 2x8 18 d and b; 280 fL O 
Gbase; ©oo ft- O G casing; 140 lbs. pL paper; 100 lbs. tar paper; 2 
eel. sash SAlo, 3 1l ; 120 fL 3^^ in. O G crown molding; 110 fL i^sxi^ 
in. Scotia; 52 ft. large drip; 52 fL x%x2% in. nosing; 150 fL blind 
stop; 150 fL parting strip; 150 ft. 1^ O G stop; 220 .ft. t% O G stop; 
36 fL x}/'sX2j4 in- cap; 36 ft. ^xi in. Scotia; 36 fL ^ in. quarter-round; 
1 cord stone; 450 brick; 15 gaL paint; 11 bbls. lime; i bbL stucco; i 
obL cement; 3 bu. hair; nails 50 lbs. 2od, 100 lbs. lod, 30 lbs. 8d, 
25 lbs. 6d, 20 lbs. 3d com., 20 lbs. lod casing, 40 lbs. 3d fine; 13 
mortise locks; 13 pair butts; 2^ doz. win bolts; 2 doz. wardrobe hooks ; 
3 thimbles. Esamated for 18x28 12 fL high, with storm house over 
door. 



DESIGN No. 8. 

2 ps. 6x8 28; s ps. 6x3 20; 3 ps. 6x8 14; 42 ps. 2x8 zS; 28 ps. 2x8 14, 
3 ps. 4x4 18; 43 ps. 2x4 20; 32 ps. 2x4 18; 117 ps. 2x4 16; 66 ps. 2x4 
14; lips. 2x4 12; 2,500 ft. sheathing d 1 s: 1,200ft. rough sheathing, 
3. coo ft. siding; 2,240 ft. flooring; 9,500 shingles; 1,300 fL finishing; 
I : : f: "3 wainscoting; 200 ft. 3x8 ceilmg; 9,000 lath; i door glazed and 



545 

transom; 2 doors 2 8x6 8, i}i No. 1; 13 doors 2 6x6 i^ No. i; 7 win. 
12x28411.; 2 win, 12x28211.; II win. 12x24411.; 6 ps, 2x8 18, d and 
b; 400 ft. O G base; 800 ft. O G casing; 260 lbs. pi. paper; 160 lbs. tar 
paper; 2 eel. sash 8x10 3 it. ; 200 ft. 4^ in. O G crown molding; 200 
ft. 2^^ in. O G crown molding; 290 ft. 1^ O G stop; 280 ft. i^ 
O G stop; 280 ft. parting strips; 280 ft. blind stops; 90 ft. large 
drip; 90 ft. 1^x2^ in. nosing; 48 ft. ij^x2^ in. cap; 48 ft. 
^xi in. Scotia; 48 ft. ^ in. quarter round; 2 cords stone 18 in high; 
1,000 bricks; 28 gals, paint; 17 bbls. lime; i bbl. stucco; 4 bu. 
hair; i bbl. cement; nails, 100 lbs. 2od, 200 lbs. lod, 60 lbs. 8d, 50 lbs, 
6d, 40 lbs. 3d com. , 70 lbs. 3d fine, 40 lbs. lod casing ; 16 mortise locks ; 
16 pr. butts and screws; 2% doz. window spring bolts; 3 doz. ward- 
robe hooks; 5 flue thimbles; stair rail and balusters. Main part 20x28 
ft. ; ell part I/IX14, 16 ft. high, with two porches and bay window. 

DESIGN No. 10. 

3 ps. 6x8 32; 2 ps. 6x8 30; I ps. 6x8 20; 48 ps. 2x8 16; 24 ps. 2x8 14; 
ops. 2x810; 16 ps. 2x4 20; 42 ps. 2x4 18; 126 ps. 2x4 16; 54 ps. 2x4 14; 
60 ps, 2x412; 2,000 ft. sheathing, d I s; 1,600 ft. roUgh sheathing; 
2,400 ft. siding; 1,800 ft. flooring; 12,000 shingles; 1,000 ft. fin- 
ishing; 180 leet wainscoting; 9,000 lath; i pair doors, 4 0x7 
o, i^, and transom; 2 doors, 2 8x6 8, i}i. No. i; 14 doors, 2 
6x6 6, i^. No. t; 9 win. 12x28 4 It. ; 6 win. 12x24 4 It. ; 5 ps. 
2x8 18 d and b ; 450 ft. O G base ; 760 ft. O G casing ; 220 lbs. pi. paper ; 
210 lbs. tar paper; 2 eel. sash, 8x10, 3 It.; 170 ft. 3^ in. O G crown 
molding; 170 ft. i^^xi^ in. Scotia; 72 ft. large drips; 72 ft. 1^x2^^ 
in. nosing; 200 ft. blind stop; 200 ft. parting strip; 200 ft. i^ 
O G stops; 300 ft. x}i O G stops; 50 ft. 1^x2^^ in. cap, 50 
ft. ^xi in. Scotia; 50 ft. % in. quarter-round i^^ cords stone, 12 in. 
high; 1,000 brick; 21 gal. paint; 17 bbls. lime; i bbl, stucco; 4 bu. 
hair; i bbl. cement; nail, 60 lbs, 2od, 205 lbs. lod, 60 lbs. 8d, 40 lbs. 6d, 
50 lbs. 3d com., 70 lbs. 3d fine, 25 lbs. lod casing; 16 mortise locks; 18 
pair butts and screws; 3;^ doz. win. bolts; 3 doz, wardrobe hooks; 4 
flue thimbles. Main part, 16x32, 16 ft. high. Lean-to on side, 14x32, 
8 ft. on side. Vestibule in front, with gable. 



DESIGN No. II. 

2 ps. 6x8 26; 4 ps. 6x8 16; 2 ps. 6x8 14; 4 ps. 6x8 12 ; 60 ps. 2x8 16; 
9 ps. 2x814; 20 ps. 2x614; 24 ps. 2x420; 56 ps. 2x418; 90 ps. 2x4 16; 
36 ps. 2x414; loops. 2x4 12; 20 ps. 2x410; 2,100 ft. sheathing, d i s; 
1,600 ft. rough sheathing; 2,400 ft. siding; 1,750 ft. flooring; 15,000 
shingles; 1,400 ft. finishing; 160 ft. ^ wauiscoting; 140 ft. ^8 ceiling; 
10,000 lath; 3 doors 2 8x6 8, i%, No. i; 15 doors 2 6x6, i^. No, i ; 12 
win. 12x28,4 It.; 7 win. 12x21, 4 It. ; 6 ps. 2x8 18 d and b; 500 ft. 
O G base; 860 ft. O G casing; 230 lbs. pi. paper; 220 lbs. tar 
paper; 2 eel. sash 8x10 3 It. ; 250 ft. 4% in. O Cr crown molding; 250 
ft. 2^ in. O G crown molding; 90 ft. large drip; 90 ft. ij^ 
X2^ in. nosing; 260 ft. blind stop; 260 ft. parting strip; 260 ft. 
1% O G stops; 320 ft. iK ^^ ^'^ stops; 48 ft. xY&x-zYz in. cap; 
48 ft. ^xi in. Scotia; 48 ft, ^ in, quarter-round; 2 cords 
stone 15 in, high; 1,500 brick; 28 gal. paint; 18 bbls. lime; 2 
bbls. stucco; 5bu. hair; i bbl. cement; nails, 100 lbs. 2od, 200 lbs. lod, 
100 lbs. 8d, 40 lbs. 6d, 60 lbs. 3d com., 70 lbs. 3d fine, 50 lijs, lod cas- 
,iiig. 18 mortise locks; 18 pair butts and screws; 5 do/, win. springs; 



546 

4 doz. wardrobe hooks; 7 thimbles foif tlues. Main house 16x26, 16 
ft high; ell for parlor 12x16, 16 ft. high; ell for kitchen 12x14, 9 
ft. high. Two bay windows; two porches with hall. 

DESIGN No. 12. 

2 ps. 6x830; 1 p. 6x824; 2 ps. 6x820; 6 ps. 6x816; pops. 2x8 i4;» 
44 ps. 2x8 16; 45 ps. 2x6 14; I p. 4x4 18; 200 ps. 2x4 18; 116 ps. 2x4 
16; 54 ps. 2x4 12; 3,150 ft. sheathing, d i s; 2,100 ft. rough sheathing; 
3,600 ft. siding; 3,360 ft. flooring; 17,000 shingles; 2,000 ft. finishing; 
200 ft. Yq wainscoting; 100 ft. ^ ceiling; 16,000 lath; 2 doors glazed 
and transoms; 2 doors 2 8x6 8, i^. No. 1; 27 doors 2 6x6 6, i^ No. 1; 
13 win. 12x28, 4 It. ; II win. 12x24, i It.; 7 ps. 2x8 18 d and b; 900 ft. 
O G base; 1,500 ft. O G casing; 350 lbs. pi. paper; 300 lbs. tar paper, 
2 eel. sash 8x10, 3 It.; 290 ft. 4% in. O G crown molding; 
280 ft. 2% in. O G crown molding; no ft. large drip; no ft. 
1^x2)^ in. nosing; 336 ft. blind stop; 336 ft. 1% O G stops; 
620 ft. x^ O G stops; 336 parting strips; 60 ft. xyzx-2%, in, cap; 60 
ft. %xi in. Scotia; 60 ft. % in. quarter-round; 2 cords stone 12 in. 
high; 2,000 brick; 40 gal. paint; 30 bbls. lime; 3 bbls. stucco; 1 
bbl. cement; 8 bu. hair; nails, 200 lbs. 2od, 300 lbs. lod, 100 lbs, 8d, 
60 lbs. 6d, 60 lbs. 3d com.; 100 lbs. lod casing; 125 lbs. 3d fine; 
31 mortise locks; 4 rim locks; 35 pair butts and screws; 6 doz. win. 
spring bolts; 4 doz, wardrobe hooks; 7 thimbles, 6 in. Main part, 
28x30, 18 ft. high; front projection 6x14, 18 ft. high; back part i6x 
24, 12 ft. [high; outside closet with one porch and one vestibule in 
front. 



DESIGN No. 13. 

6 ps. 6x^ 16; 2 ps. 6x8 14; 2 ps. 6x812; 46 ps. 2x816; 32 ps, 2x814; 
7 ps. 2x8 12; 20 ps. 2x6 16; 10 [ps. 2x6 14; 3 ps. 4x4 18; 54 ps. 
2x420; 8ips. 2x418; 60 ps. 2x4 16; 4 ps. 2x4 14; 69 ps. 2x412; 2,500 
ft. sheathing, d I s; 1,400 ft. rough sheathing; 2,800 ft, siding; 2,100 
ft. flooring; 11,000 shingles; 1,500 ft. finishing; 180 ft. J^ wainscoting; 
160 ft. ^ celling; 9,000 lath; i glazed door and transom; 2 doors, 2 8x6 
81^ No. 1 ; 9 doors, 2 6x6 6, i^ No. 1 ; 15 win. 12x28 4 It. ; 9 win. 12x24, 
4 It., 7 ps. 2x8 18 d and b; 450 ft. O G base; 750 ft. O G casing; 280 lbs. 
pi. paper; 175 lbs. tar paper; 2 eel. sash 8x10; 270 ft. ^% in. O G crown 
molding; 270 ft. 2% in. O G crown molding; 100 ft. large drip; 
zoo ft. 1^x2^ in. nosing; 340 ft. blind stop; 340 ft. parting strip; 
340 ft, 1% O G stop; 250 ft, i3^_ O G stop; 44 ft. 1^x2^ in. cap; 
44 ft. %xi in. Scotia; 44 ft. % in. quarter-round; stair rail, balus- 
ters and newel; 2 cords stone 15 in. high; 2,000 brick; 28 gal. paint; 
i7bbls. lime; i bbl. stucco; i bbl. cement; 4 bu. hair; nails, 100 lbs. 
2od, 200 lbs. lod, 50 lbs. 8d, 40 lbs. 6d, 40 lbs. 3d com. , 70 lbs. 3d fine, 50 
lbs. lod easing; 12 mortise locks; i4pair butts and screws; 6 doz. win. 
springs; 3 doz. wardrobe hooks, 7 thimbles. Main part 16x26, 18 ft. 
high; front wing 14x16 ft. high; back wing 12x14, 9 ft. high; 3 porches, 
I pantry, i hall and i bay window. 



DESIGN No. 14. 

2 ps. 6x8 30; 4 ps. 6x8 16; I p. 6x8 18; 2 ps, 6x6 20; 1 p. 6x6 12; 
76 ps. 2x8 16; 38 ps, 2x6 16; 15 ps, 2x6 12; 2 ps. 4x4 18; 130 ps. 
2x4 18; 67 ps. 2x4 16; 90 ps. 2x4 12; 2,800 ft. sheathing d is; 1,600 



547 



ft. rough sheathing; 3,300 ft. siding; 2,440 ft. flooring; 13,000 shingles* 
1,450 ft finishing; 160 ft. 7/^ wainscoting; 140 ft. % ceiling- 0,500 
iath; 5 doors, 2 8x6 8, ly^ No. i; 11 doors, 2 6x6 6, i}i No I- i-> 
win. 12x28, 4 It. ; 10 win. 12x24, 4 It; 7 Ps. 2x8 18 d and b; 500 ft O 
Obase; 8ooft. O. G casing; 300 lbs. pi. paper; 220 lbs. tar paper- 2 
eel. sash, 8x10, 3 It. ; 400 ft. y^ in. batts for lattice; 250 ft. 4^ in O 
Ct crown molding; 250 ft. 2^ in. O G crown molding; 110 ft. large 
drip; no ft. 1^x2^ m. nosing; 300 ft. blind stop; 300 ft. parting- 
strips; 300 ft. 1^ O G stop; 280 ft. iX O G stop; 40 ft. iVgx2K in 
cap 1-40 ft. ^xi in. Scotia; 40 ft. % in. quarter-round; 2 cords stone 
12 m, high. 1,500 brick; 30 gal. paint; 20 bbls. lime; 2 bbls 
stucco; 5 bu. hair; 2 bbls. cement; nails, 100 lbs. 2od, 200 lbs' 
lod, 100 lbs. 8d, solbs. 6d, 45 lbs. 3d com., yolbs. 3d fine; 50 lbs. lod 
casing; 16 mortise locks; 16 pr. butts and screws; 6 doz. win springs* 
3 doz. wardrobe hooks; 8 thimbles. Main part 16x30,18 ft high' 
wing on side 16x18, 18 ft. high; front porch and bay window; summer 
Kitchen plastered; with back summer kitchen 12x20, 8 ft. hi^b 



DESIGN No. 15. 

I p. 6x8 24; 4ps. 6x8 20; 2 ps. 6x8 14; i p. 6x8 18; 50 ps. 2x8 
14; 12 ps. 2x8 18; 2 ps. 4x4 16; 30 ps. 2x4 20; 42 ps. 2x4 18; 80 ps. 
2x4 16; 15 ps 2x4 12; 75 ps. 2x4 10; 1,900 ft. sheathing d i s; 
1,100 ft. rough sheathing; 2,300 ft. siding; 1,650 ft. flooring; 9,000 
shingles; 1,200 ft. finishing; 140 ft. ^ wainscoting; 60 ft. ^ ceiling • 
^'^/°°xT ' ^ gl'^ized door and transom; 2 doors, 2 8x6 8 

i^t.No. 1; 14 doors, 26x66, i^ No. 1; 10 win. 12x28, 4 It • 
7 win. 12x24, 4 It. ; 5 ps. 2x8 18 d and b; 500 ft. O G base; 780 ft' 
O G casing; 200 lbs. pi. paper; 150 lbs. tar paper; 2 eel. win. 8x10 3 
It. ; 200 ft. 3^ in. O G crown molding; 200 ft. i^xi^ in. Scotia; 
80ft. large drip; Soft. 1^x2^ in. nosing; 240 ft. blind stop; 240ft 
parting strips; 240ft. 1% O G stop; 300 ft. i^ O (; stop; 40ft. 13^x2^ 
in. cap; 40ft. No. %xi in. Scotia; 40 ft. ^ in. quarter-round; newel 
post rail and balusters; 2 cords stone, 16 in. high; i,(x>o brick; 24 gal 
paint; 17 bbls. lime; 2 bbls. stucco; i bbl. cement; 5 bu. hair- nails' 
100 lbs. 2od, 150 lbs. lod, 60 lbs. 8d, 40 lbs. 6d, 30 lbs. 3d com., 50 
lbs. lod casing, 70 lbs. 3d fine; 17 mortise locks; 17 pair butts and 
screws; 4 14: doz. win, springs; 2 doz. wardrobe hooks; 7 thimbles 6 
V^' ^^'" P^''^ 14x38, 16 ft. high. Side lean-to, 9x24, 9 ft. high. 
Porch and bay window. 



DESIGN No. 16. 

5 ps. 6x8 18; 5 ps. 6x8 16; 4 ps. 6x8 24; 50 ps. 2x8 j8; 12 ps. 
2x8 16; 50 ps. 2x8 14; 25 ps. 2x6 20; 30 ps. 2x6 16; \ 
ps. 4x4 18; 10 ps. 2x4 20; 157 ps. 2x4 18; 96 ps. 2x4 16; 2,300' ft. 
sheathing, d is; 1,^00 ft. rough sheathing; 2,700 ft. siding; 2,900 ft', 
flooring; 12,000 shingles; i,4(x) ft. finishing; 170 ft. ^ wainscoting; 
200ft. No. I ^ceiling; 12,000 lath; 1 door glazed and transom; i 
door, 2 8x6 8, i)^ No. i; 16 doors, 2 6x6 6, i-^ No, i; n win. 12x28 
4lt. ; 13 win. 12x24, 4 It. ; 7 ps. 2x8 18 d and b; 600 ft. O G base; 
940 ft. O G casing; 260 lbs. pi. paper; 200 lbs. tar paper; 2 ccl. sash 
8x10 3 It. ; 180 ft. ^% in. O G crown molding; 180 u. ^% in. O G 
crown molding ; 100 ft. large drip; 100 ft. i%\2% in. nosing; 340 ft^ 



54S 

blind stop; 340 ft, parting strip; 340 ft. i^ O G stops; 320 ft. 1^ O 
G stops; 50 ft. 15^x2^ in. cap; 50 ft. ^xi in. Scotia; 50 ft. |^ in. 
quarter-round; 2 cords stone, 18 in. high; 1,300 brick; 30 gal. paint; 
22 bbls. lime; 2 bbls. stucco; 2 bbls. cement; 5 bu. hair; nails, 100 
lbs. 2od, 200 lbs. lod, 100 lbs. 8, 40 lbs. 6d, 40 lbs. 3d com., 50 lbs. 
lod casing, 90 lbs. 3d fine; 18 mortise locks; 18 pair butts and screws; 
6 doz. window sprmgs ; 4 doz. wardrobe hooks ; 6 thimbles 6 inch. 
House 32x32, 18 ft. ; pavilion roof with veranda in front. 



DESIGN No. 18. 

5 ps. 6x8 24; 2 ps. 6x8 20; I p. 6x8 14; 8 ps. 2x8 16; 14 ps. 2x8 
14; 72 ps, 2x8 12; 14 ps. 2x6 14; 4 ps. 4x4 16; 12 ps. 2x4 20; 28 ps. 
2x4 18; 136 ps. 2x4 16; 8 ps. 2x4 14; 42 ps. 2x4 12; 22 ps. 2x4 10; 
1,450 ft, sheathing, d i s; 1,360 ft. rough sheathing; 1,700 ft. siding, 
2,000 ft. flooring; 11,000 shingles ; 1,200 ft. finishing; 200 ft. J-g wains- 
coting; 160 ft. ^ceiling; 8,000 lath; i door glazed and transom, i 
door, 2 8x6 8, i^; 13 doors 2 6x6 6, 1%; 5 doors 2 0x6 o, 1%; 11 
win. 12x28 4 It. ; 3 win. 12x24 4 It. ; 4 ps. 2x8 iS d and b; 450 ft. O G 
base; 680 ft. O G casing; 160 lbs. pl. paper; 185 lbs. tar paper; 2 eel, 
sash 8x10, 3 It. ; 220 ft. 2^4 in. O G crown molding; 220 ft. i%xi^ 
in. Scotia; 64 ft. large drip; 64 ft. 1^x2^/^ in. nosing; 200 ft. blind 
stop; 200 ft. parting strips; 200ft. i^ O G stop; 260 ft. i^ O G 
stops; 50 ft. i%-s.2l4 in. cap.; 50 ft. ^xt in. Scotia; 50 ft. 
^ in. quarter-round; il4 cords stone 12 in, high; 1,000 brick; 
22 gal. paint; 16 bbls. lime; i bbl. stucco; i bbl. cement; 3 bu. 
hair; nails, 100 lbs. 2od, 200 lbs. lod, 60 lbs. 8d, 30 lbs. 6d, 40 lbs. 
3d com., 50 lbs. lod casing, 60 lbs. 3d fine; 15 mortise locks; 5 rim 
locks; 20 pair butts and screws; 3 5^ doz. window springs; 3 doz. 
wardrobe hooks ; 7 thimbles, 6 in. Main part 24x24, 12 ft. high ; ell 
part 14x20,' 8 ft. high, with porch. 



DESIGN No. 19. 

2 ps. 6x8 30; 2 ps. 6x8 20; 44 ps. 2x8 20; 16 ps. 2x4 20; 30 ps. 
2x4 18; 40 ps. 2x4 16; 98 ps. 2x4 14; 1,500 ft. sheathing, d i s ; 900 ft. 
rough sheathing; 1,800 ft. siding; 1,400 ft. flooring; 7,500 shingles; 
900 ft. finishing; 150 ft J^ wainscoting; 7,500 lath; 2 doors glazed and 
transoms; 10 doors, 2 6x6 6, 1%; 11 win., 12x28 4 It. ; 4 win. 12x24 4 
It.; 4ps. 2x8 18, dandb; 170 lbs. pl. paper; 125 lbs. tar paper; 400 
ft. O Gbase; 600 ft. O G casing; 2 eel. sash, Sxio 3 It.; stair rail, 
newel post and balusters; 120 ft. 3^ in. O G crown molding; 120 ft. 
i^xi^ in. Scotia; 70 ft. large drip ; 70 ft. 1 5:^^X2^ in. nosing; 203 ft. 
blind stop; 200ft. parting strip; 200 ft. I'^g O G stops; 200 ft. ^%0 
G stops: 40 ft. i%x2% in. cap; 40 ft. ^xi in. Scotia; 40 ft. ^ in. 
quarter-round; i cord stone 12 in. high; 1,000 brick; 17 
gal. paint; 14 bbls. lime; i bbl. stucco; i bbl. cement; 4 bu. 
hair; nails, 60 lbs. 2od, 100 lbs. lod, 50 lbs. 8d, 30 lbs. 6d, 25 lbs. 3d 
com., 40 lbs. lod casing, 60 lbs. 3d fine; 12 mortise locks; 12 pr. butts 
and screws; 3^ do:^. win. springs; 2 doz. wardrobe hooks; 6 thim- 
bles, 6-in. House 20x30, 14 ft. high. 



549 

DESIGN No. 20. 

2 ps. 6x8 32; 2 ps. 6x8 16; 6 ps. 6x8 14; 23 ps. 2x8 16; 18 ps. 
2x8 14; 12 ps, 2x8 12; 25 ps. 2x6 16; 22 ps. 2x6 14; 2 ps, 4x4 16; 58 
ps. 2x4 18; 16 ps, 2x4 16; 40 ps. 2x4 14; sops, 2x4 12; 42 ps. 2x410; 
1,460 ft. sheathing, d i s; 1,500 ft. rough sheathing; 1,800 ft, siding; 
1,500 ft. flooring; 12,000 shingles; 1,000 ft, finishing; 180 ft, wains- 
coting; 160 ft, ^ ceiling; 5,000 lath; 4 doors, 2 8x6 8, i^, No. i; 7 
doors, 2 6x6 6, j%, No, i ; 13 win, 12x28 4 It. ; 4 ps, 2x8 18, d and b; 
250 ft. O G base; 500 ft. O G casing; i6olbs.pl, paper; 200 lbs, tar 
paper; 2 eel, sash, 8x103 It.; 230 ft, 3^^ in. O G crown molding; 
230 ft, i^xi^ in, Scotia; 70 ft. large drip; 70 ft. 1^x2^ in, nosing; 
180 ft. blind stop; 180 ft, parting strip; 180 ft. i|^ O G stop; 200 ft. 
iK O ^ stop; 148 ft. i5^x2^ in, cap; 48 ft. % in. quarter-round; 48 
ft. ^xi in. Scotia; i^ cords stone, 12 in. high; 1,000 brick; 18 gal. 
paint; 11 bbls. lime; i bbl. stucco; 2 bu. hair; 1 bbl. cement; nails, 
60 lbs. 2od, 140 lbs, lod, 50 lbs. 8d, 30 lbs. 6d, 45 lbs, 3d com,, 40 lbs. 
3d fine, 50 lbs. lod casing; n mortise locks; 11 pr. butts and screws; 
3^ doz. win. springs; 2 doz. wardrobe hooks; 3 thimbles. House 
16x32, 2 wings, each 14x14, g ft. high; two porches and outside 
pantry. 



DESIGN No. 21. 

'> ps. 6xS 28; 2. ps. 6x8 18; 42 ps. 2x8 18; 8 ps. 2x4 20; 28 ps. 2x4 
18 ; 22 ps, 2x4 16 ; 56 ps. 2x4 14 ; 66 ps. 2x4 12 ; 1,400 ft, sheathing, d i s ; 
800 ft, rough sheathing; 6,500 shingles; 1,600 ft. siding; 1,200 ft, floor- 
ing; 700 ft, finishing; 140 ft, % wainscoting: 6,500 lath; 2 doors 2 8x6 
8, i^, No, i; 7 doors 2 6x6 6, i^. No. i; 7 win, 12x28 4 It.; 2 win. 
12x24 4 It. ; 3 ps. 2x8 18, d and b ; 320 ft, O G base ; 400 f t O G casing; 
160 lbs, pl, paper; no lbs. tar paper; 2 eel. sash; molding, no ft. 
No. 2225, no ft. No, 2320 44 ft. large drip; molding, 44 ft. No, 2632; 
120ft. blind stop; 120ft. parting strip; molding, 120 ft. No, 2374, 160 
ft. No, 2380, 36ft. No, 2450, 36 ft. No, 2319, 36 ft, ^ round No. 2326; 

1 cord stone 14 in. high; 500 brick; 16 gal, paint; 12 bbls. lime; i bbl. 
stucco; 1 bbl. cement; 3 bu. hair; nails, 50 lbs. 20 d., 100 lbs, 10 d,, 
40 lbs. 8d., 25 lbs, 6d., 25 lbs, 3d com., 50 lbs 3d fine, 40 lbs, lod 
casing; 9 mortise locks; 9 pr. butts and screws; 2^ doz, win, springs; 

2 doz. wardrobe hooks; 4 thimbles, 6-in, House, 18x28, 14 ft. posts. 



DESIGN No. 22. 

2 ps. 6x8 22; 2 ps. 6x8 24; 6 ps. 6x8 16; ito ps. 2x8 16; 36 ps. 2x6 
16; loqps. 2x420; 48 ps. 2x418; 66 ps. 2x416; 128 ps. 2x412; 13 ps. 
2x4 10; 3,100 ft. sheathing, d i; 2,240 ft. rough sheathing; 3,600 ft. 
siding; 3,230 ft. flooring; 18,000 shingles ; 1,800 ft. finishing; 210 ft. J-^ 
wainscoting; 160 ft. ^ceiling; 12,500 lath; 2 doors, glazed and tran- 
soms ; 2 doors 2 8x6 8, 1% ; 17 doors 2 6x6 6, i^ ; 14 win. 12x32, 4 It. ; ir 
win. 12x28, 4 It. ; 7 ps. 2x8 18 d and b ; 650 ft. O G base ; 1.000 ft. O G 
casing; 345 lbs. pl. paper ; 310 lbs. tar paper; 2 celf sash 8x10, 3 It. ; 
280 ft. 4% in, crown molding; 280 ft. 2]^ ii^- O G crown molding; 12a 
ft, large drip; 120 ft, 1^x2^ in, nosing; 350 ft. blind stop; 350ft. 
parting strip; 350 ft, 1^ O G stop; 360 ft, i^^ O G stop; 60 ft i%x2}^ 
in. cap ; 60 ft. ^ in. quarter-round; 60 ft. ^xi in. Scotia; 3 cords 



550 

stone i6 in. high; 25,000 brick; 37 gal. paint; 25 bbls. lime; 2 bbls. 
stucco; 5 bu. hair; 2 bbls. cement; nails, 150 lbs. 2od, 300 lbs. lod, 
100 lbs. 8d, 60 lbs. 6d, 70 lbs. 3d com., 100 lbs 3d line, 100 lbs. lod 
casing; 21 mortise locks; 21 pr. butts and screws; 6^ doz. win. 
springs; 4 doz. wardrobe hooks, 8 thimbles. Main part 16x26; ell 
part 16x20, 20 ft. high ; back part 16x16, 12 ft. high; three porches, 
vestibule, pantry and bath-room on the outside. 



DESIGN No. 23. 

200 ps. 2x4 20S for studding; 13 ps. 8x8 20s, for sills; 45 posts 8x8 
6 ft. ; 5 trusses 8x8, 35 ft, for span; 192 ps. 2x6 los for rafters; 2,400 ft. 
rough sheathing for side; 2,000 ft. rough sheathing for roof; 3,000 ft. 
planed siding; 2,600 ft. planed flooring; 2,900 shingles; 200 ft. water 
table; 47 ps. joist, 2x10 i8s; 250 ft. molding for outside; 60 ft. of 
cresting; 150 ft. corner boards; 650 yds. of lath and plaster; 8 double 
windows, complete; 2 sets double doors and 2 single, complete; 300 ft. 
of 10 in. base; pews extra; 2,000 brick for chimneys. 



DESIGN No. 24. 

2 ps. 6x8 32 ; 3 ps. 6x8 30 ; 6 ps. 6x8 22 ; 6 ps. 6x8 20 ; 6 ps. 6x6 12 ; 
6 ps. 6x6 14; 8 ps. 6x6 16; 6 ps. 6x6 20; 62 ps. 2x6 26; 34 ps. 2x6 20; 8 
ps. 2x6 18; 8 ps. 2x6 16; 66 ps. 2x6 14; 40 ps. 2x10 12; 76 ps. 2x10 14; 
60 ps. 2x1020; 25 ps. 4x4 16; 65 ps. 2x4 12; 52 ps. 2x4 16; 40 ps. 2x4 
20; 4,800 ft. 2-in. plank; 8,100 ft. ship lap; 1,000 ft. stock, d i s; 8,800 
ft. sheathing; 40,000 shingles ; 4,600 ft. O G batts; 6 win. 8x10 12 It. 
pi.; nails, 100 lbs. 3od, 200 lbs. 2od, 500 lbs. lod, 25 lbs. 6d; 150 lbs. 
3d, 25 lbs. 8d clinch; strap hinges, 5 pr. 8-in., 9 pr. 10-in; 12 hooks 
and staples; 5 hasps and staples; i cord stone for pillars; 28 gal. 
paint. Barn, main part 40x60; 14 ft. high; ell or shed, 30x40; 10 ft. 
high ; open front. 

DESIGN No. 25. 

3 ps. 6x8 28; 2 ps. 6x8 20; 13 ps. 2x10 20; 15 ps. 2x8 20; 2 ps. 4x4 
16; 10 ps. 2x420; 8 ps. 2x4 18; 16 ps. 2x4 16; 80 ps. 2x4 14; 1,120 ft. 
2-in. plank; 2,300 ft. ship lap; 250 ft. stock, d i s; 1,300 ft. rough 
sheathing; 7,000 shingles; 1,500 ft. O G batts; 4 win. 10x12, 8 lt.,pl. ; 
^ cord stone; i pr. rollers and 16 ft. track; 3 pr. lo-in. strap hinges; 
3 hooks and staples; t hasp and staple; nails, 60 lbs. 2od, 200 lbs lod, 
25 lbs. 6d, 25 lbs. 3d coarse, 15 lbs. 8d clinch; 10 gal. paint. Barn, 
20x28, 14 ft. 

DESIGN No. 26. 

200 lineal ft. 8x10 for main sills ; 150 lineal ft. 8x8 for cross sills; 150 
lineal ft. 6x6 for cross girths; 16 ps. 8x8 16s for posts; 200 lineal ft. 
6x8s for plates ; 200 lineal ft. 6x8s for girths ; 52 ps. 2x4 los for studs 
for bins, stables, etc. ; 20 ps. 2x8 12s for studs between carriage-room 



551 

and mow; 20 ps. 2x6 12s for studs between carriage-room and corn- 
crib; 20 ps. 2x6 16s for studs for end of corn-crib; 24 ps. 2x8 i6s 
for floor joists for carriage-room and corn-crib; 24 ps. 2x8 12s for 
floor joists for drive-way ; 24 ps. 2x8 8s (i6s) for floor joists for bins ; 24 
ps. 2x8 20s for floor joists for stable; 2 ps. 4x4 i6s, for stringer under 
stable; 2,800 ft. 2x8 joists under floor of loft, which is over stable, 
bins, carriage-room and corn-crib; 72 ps. 2x6 22s (or 20s) for rafters; 
36 ps. 2x4 i2S for collar beams; 3,200 ft. dressed dimension boards for 
siding; 800 ft. 3-in. O G battens; 540 ft. flooring for doors; 2,500ft. 
common boards for roofing; 30,000 shingles; 3,000 ft. 2-in. plank; 
1,150 ft. matched dimension boards for floor of loft; 600 ft. matched 
dimension boards for bins; 350 ft. i^-in. plank for mangers, etc. ; 360 
ft. common boards for partition between carriage-room and hay mow; 
270ft. 3-in. battens between carriage-room and crib; 2 ps. 2x4 16s for 
ladder posts in front of mow; 136 lineal ft. 4x4s for braces; 135 ft, 
dressed dimension boards for ventilator shaft; 2 windows, 8-light, 8x12, 
2 cellar sash, 3-light, 10x12, over small doors (not indicated in cuts). 



DESIGN No. 27. - 

For sills: 2 ps. 8x10 340; 2 ps. 8x10 22 o; i ps. 8x10 16 o. For 
girders: 3 ps. 10x10200; 2 posts 8x8 14 o. For joists: 46 ps. 2x10 
22 o; 48 ps. 2x10 14 o; 12 ps. 2x10 18 o; 20 ps. 2x8 22 o; 24 ps. 2x8 
140; 25 ps. 2x8120; 120 ps. 2x4 22 o; 230 ps. 2x4 20 o;36ps. 2x4 160; 
16 ps. 2x4 14 o ; 27 ps. 2x4 120; 6 ps. 2x10 20 o ; 8 ps. 2x10 14 o. Six 
6 in. X 6 ft. cedar posts; 5,300 ft. com. bds. d 1 s; 24,000 A shingles; 
1, 000 shingles, cut corners; 3,600 ft. siding; 335 yards No. 2 wool felt; 
900 lineal ft. 2x2 bridging; 275 lineal ft. 1x6 ribbon bands; 23 ps. 14 
and 23 ps. 16 ft. 154^x5, beaded corner boards; 3,000 ft. ^]A, in. flooring; 
1,500 ft. 53^ in. fencing d &m; 14 ps. 6x16 o ridge boards; 200 lin. ft. 
5" crown mold, No. 2,201 Standard Molding Book; 200 lin, ft. 3" 
facie; 200 lin. ft. 2'* bed mold No. 2,577 Standard Molding Hook; 200 
lin. ft. 12" soffeit; 200 lin. ft. 14" frieze; 160 lin. ft. ^]/i^^ water table; 
I staircase, 22 ft. 3x4 rail; 32 — 2^" turned balusters; 1—7" square 
newel post; 3 flights back stairs. Doors, i^" sunk mold, chamfered 
edges; 2 — 2 4x7 o; 1 — 2 8x7 6; 2 — 3 0x8 o; 3 — 2 8x76; 3 — 24x7 6; 
2 — 28x76; 1 — 28x76. Doors, i^ P G mold ; 1 — 24x70; 1 — 26x70; 
I — 28x70; 4 — 28x70; 5 — 24x70; 1 — 28x70; 1 — 26x70; 1 — 30x66; 
I transom sash, 1^", i light, 14x52; 4 transom sash, 1^", 4 It. 12x28; 
1 plank frame and sash, i^", i It. 14x26; 3 do. 6 It. 14x14; i do. 2 It. 
12x14. 

WINDOW FRAMES AND SASH 1^" THICK. 

2 mullion, 2 It. 28x38; 2 window 2 It. 28x28; 2 window, 2 It. 18x38; 
I mullion, 4 It. 16x38; i window, 4 It. 15x38; 1 window, 4 It. 14x38; i 
window, 2 It. 14x38; 1 mullion, 4 It. 28x36; 4 window, 8 It. 28x36; 2 
window, 4 It. 26x36; 2 window, 8 It. 14x36; i window, 2 It. 15x36; 2 
window, 4 It. 16x36; 3 window, 6 It. 20x36: i oval, i It. 18x36; i roUnd, 
I It. 20x20; I window, 4 It. 12x24; 1 window, 2 It. 18x20. 

450 lin. ft. J^x5 O G casings; 600 lin. ft. i ^x6 door frames; 650 
lin. ft. %X5^ O G casings and moldings; 250 lin. ft. Jix8 carved 
plinth; 250 lin. ft. %X2*^ molding, No. 2,994 Standard Molding Book,- 
250 lin. ft. J^" round molding; 350 lin. ft. %X5',4 pine, d ni & l); 50 lin. 
ft, %xi}i molding; 38 ps. 1^/8x5^x16 o beaded and chamfered casings; 
55 head blocks, 1^x5^x11 with turned rosettes; 38 plinth blocks, 
X^xs^xioJ^ molded and beaded; 160 lin. ft. "3x5 C) G plinths; 190 



lin. ft. yixS coved, beaded plinths, No. 3,076 Standard Molding Book; 
190 lin. ft. 2^/2" base mold, No. 3,075 Standard Molding Book; 190 lin. 
ft ^:^" round molding, No. 2,324 Standard Molding Book; 24 lin. ft. 
%xi6 shelving; iS lin. ft. '3x18 shelving; 100 lin. ft. "5x12 shelving; 
100 lin. ft. ^'5x3 beaded strips; 120 lin. ft. i5'sx6 molded stools, No. 
2,423 Standard Molding Book; 120 lin. It. of "3x5 O G apron, No. 
2,455 Standard Molding Book; 120 lin. ft. of '5x2 O G apron mold. No. 
2,397 Standard Molding Book; 2 sets of drawers, 2' 6" wide; 65 lin. ft. 
if^x7 molded belt; 53 lin. ft. i^^" roof cresting; 17 pairs of inside 
blinds 1^3"' thick; 11 pairs outside blinds i^i" thick; 38 ps. 15^x6x160 
outside beaded casings; 3 brackets for hoods; 4 brackets for bay win- 
dow; So lin, ft. 1^3x6; 6 brackets for porch; 850 lin. ft. ]A-s.i% O G 
stops, No. 2,381 Standard Molding Book; 3 ps. 1^x12x16 o beaded 
verge board; 35 turned rosettes ; 6 ps. i^'3Xioxi2 o; 20 turned balus. 
ters, 2x2x10 porch; 26 turned balusters, 3x3x18; 30 lin. ft. molded cor- 
nice; 4 7-inch turned posts; 3 molded and beaded newel posts, 8x8; 
25 lin. ft. 37^x6 beaded rails ; So lin. ft. J3X4 b w thresholds; 9 black 
walnut i5^" turned angle beads. 

HARDWARE. 

200 lbs. 6 penn^' common nails; 3 kegs 20 penny spikes ; i keg 10 
penny casing nails; i keg 6 penny casing nails; 2 kegs 10 penny com- 
mon nails ; 125 lbs. shingle nails ; 116 sash weights : 10 hanks of Italian 
cable sash cord; 23 black walnut rubber tipped bennpers; 42 Berlin 
bronze sash lifts: 14 japanned sash lifts; 23 Morris' patent Berlin 
bronze sash locks ; 5 japanned sash locks ; 6 pair Berlin bronze drawer 
pulls; 4 Berlin bronze spring transom locks; 8 swivel springs; 22 pair 
blind hinges, catches and fastenings; 50 japanned hat and cloak 
hooks; I set Warners sheaves and hardwood track; i Branford's 
mortise sliding door lock; i pr. Berlin bronze cups; 15 Branford's 
mortise locks; 9 Branford's mortise latches; i rim lock; i Branford's 
mortise 3-tumbler front door lock and night latch; 9 pair 2^^ in. jet 
knobs and bronze trimmings; 16 pair 2l{, in. white porcelain knobs and 
plated trimmings, all locks to have brass face and striking plates; i 2% 
in. jet bell pull and bronze trimmings, 6d ft. copper wire and 4 cranks ; 138 
pair 2 in. butts and back flaps and screws; i flush bolt 12 in. long; i 
flush bolt i3 in. long; 2 mortise thumb latches; i pair trap door hinges 
and padlock; 27 pair 452x4^2 loose pin butts; 5 pair 3x3 butts; 5 3-in. 
barrel bolts; i 6-in. barrel bolt; i pair 4x4 butts; 59 squares of 2 coat 
painting. 

MASON WORK. 

190 yards excavating; 14 cords rubble stone; 4,000 common 
brick; 1,867 yards plastering; 2,700 lath; 5 window sills, 4x8x3 4 'cut 
stone.) 



DESIGN No. 28. 

Lumber: 7 ps. 8x8 32; S ps. 8x8 26; 6 ps. 6x^ 26; 2 ps. 8x8 24; 14 
ps. 8x8 22; 100 ps. 2x6 22; 2 ps. 6x6 20; 5 ps. 4x6 20; 2 ps. 4x4 20; 7 
ps. 2x8 20; 4 ps. 8x818; 2ps. 6x8iS; 16 ps. 4x4 18: 4 ps. 8x8 16; 9 
ps. 6x6 16; II ps. 4x6 16; 19 ps. 4x4 16; 14 ps. 2x8 16; 8 ps. 2x616; 
28 ps. 2x416; 35 ps. 2x1216; 3 ps. 6x614; 2 ps. 4x614; 10 ps. 4x414; 
I30PS. 2x814; 2 ps. 2x614; 2 ps. 8x8 12; 4 ps. 6x6 12; 10 ps. 4x612; 
3 ps. 4x412; 126 ps. 2x812; 14 ps. 2x6 12; 18 ps. 2x4 12; 7 ps. 2x14 
12; 55 ps. 2x10 12; 28,000 shingles; 2,160 ft. 16 ft. com. boards; 1,400 



553 

ft. 14 ft. com. boards; 800 ft. i6 ft. fencing; 2,730 ft 16 ft. fencing floor- 
ing; 175 ft. 14 ft. fencing flooring; 350 ft. 12 ft. fencing flooring; 
2,000 ft. 14 ft. D stock, sis; 1,152 ft. 18 ft. D stock, sis; 3,000 ft. 
16 ft. D stock, sis; 5,000 lineal ft. 2^ in. O G battens; 6 windows, 
9x12, 12 It., com. glazd. ; 4 sash, 9x12, 5-lt., glazd. hardware; 10 rods 9 
6x^ ; 50 lbs. 3od spikes; 100 lbs. 2od spikes; 25 lbs., 8d clinch nails; 
125 lbs. 4d com. nails; 400 lbs. lod com. ; 4 pairs large door hangers. 
No. 2; 6 pairs small door hangers. No. i; 8 pairs 10 in. strap hinges; 
7 large hook hasps and staples; 12 pairs 6 in. T hinges with screws; 
100 ft. iron track with screws; a — Outside sill; d — manure drop, cut in 
joists 4x18; c — 4x6 supports for joists; (/ — stanchion;.? — mangers;y^^ 
meal bin; ^— cross sill; /i — ^joist for floor. 



DESIGN No. 34. 



OAKLAND COTTAGE. 



30 cedar posts 6 ft. long; 140 lineal ft. 8x8 sills; 28 joist 2x18, 16 ft 
long, first story; 15 joist 2x8, 16 feet long, first story; 13 joist 2x8, 
12 ft. long, first story; 28 joist 2x8, 16 ft. long, first story; 15 joist 2x8, 
16 ft. long, first story; 13 joist 2x8, 12 ft. long, first story; 16 collars 
2x6, 18 ft. long, in attic; 140 studs 2x4, 12 ft. long, outside walls; 
90 studs 2x4, 9 ft. long, partition studs; 92 rafters 2x4, 12 ft. long; 
1,900 ft. sheathing boards, 1x6; t,ioo ft. roof boards, common, i inch; 
10,000 pine shingles and nails; 1,800 ft. 6 inch siding; 700ft. 1x4 beaded 
and matched ceiling; 19 square ft. paper; 260 lineal ft. 1x8 molded 
base; 1,000 ft. 1x6 common flooring, pine; 800 ft. 1x6 fencing floor in 
attic; II windows, frames, sash, casings, etc.; 12 doors, frames, 
casings, hardware, etc.; i flight stairs to attic; front porch, etc.; 
sink, back steps, bells and tin work; 2 attic dormers, i half-circle 
window, water table, cornices, bells, corner boards, etc. ; bridging, 
plates, braces, etc.; i fancy front gable; 2 chimneys, brick and mo*"- 
tar; 280 yards two-coat plastering; painting, glass, etc. 



DESIGN No. 36. 

CANADIAN COTTAGE. 

133 lineal ft. 8x8 sills, 665 ft. ; 50 8-inch cedar posts; 150 sx^ 
studs 16 ft. long, 1,650 ft. ; 180 2x4 studs 12 ft. long; 95 2x4 rafters 
12 ft. long; 60 2x10 joists 24 ft. long; 13 2x8 joists 12 ft. long; 32 
2x4 ceiling joists 24 ft. long; 13 2x4 ceiling joists 12 ft. long; 2,000 
fr. roof bo rds; 2,360 ft. sheathing boards; 700 ft. beaded and 
matched; 18,000 A shingles; 2,800 ft. 6-inch siding; 18 window 
trames, sash, casing and hardware; 17 doors, frames, jambs, casing 
and hardware; one fliglit stairs, front gable; outside steps; 2 chim- 
neys, fouiidations and materials; 480 ft. base and mold; 145 ft. out- 
side cornice; 135 feet water table and belt course; 6 closets, shelves 
and hooks; 2,000 feet ix6-inch flooring; glass and painting; 62S yds. 
2-coat plastering; fancy shingles, cresting and finials; 23 squares 
sheathing paper; plates, bridging blocks, etc. ; hardware, nails, etc. 



554 
DESIGN No. 38. 

FERNWOOD COTTAGE. 

35 cedar possts 6 -t lov^; 170 lineal ft. 8x8 sills; 44 2x8 joist 14 ft. 
long, first floor; 20 2x8 joist 16 ft. first floor; 44 2x8 joist 14 ft. long, 
second floor; 20 2x8 joist 16 ft. long, second floor; 20 2x4 collar beams 
8 ft. long, attic; 138 2x4 outside studs 12 ft. long; 70 2x4 partition 
studs 9 ft. long; 100 2x4 rafters, 12 ft. long; 1,600 ft. com. boards for 
roof; 14,000 pine shingles, nails, etc. ; 1,500 ft. 6 inch siding; 300 ft. 
1x4 beaded and matched ceiling; 1,300 ft. 1x6 sheathing (fencing 
No. 2) ; 1,400 ft. paper and nails; 260 lineal ft. 1x8 molded 
base; 275 yards plastering; 1,000 ft. 1x6 pine flooring; 2 chimneys — 
brick and mortar; 12 windows, sash, casings, hardware, etc. ; 9 doors, 
frames, hardware, etc. ; i flight stairs to attic; 800 ft. fencing floor in 
attic; front porch: sink, back steps, bells and tin work; front dormer, 
water-table, corner boards, etc., painting, glass and glazing; main 
cornice; bridging, plates and braces. 



DESIGN No. 39. 

BUENA VISTA COTTAGE. 

32,560 brick in foundation; 48 yards cubic excavation, 25 cts. ; 
5,040 brick in chimneys above footing; 190 ps. 2x4 studs, 16 ft. long, 
outside; 87 ps. 2x4 partition studs, 12 feet long; 20 ps. 2x8 partition 
studs, 12 ft. long; 48 ps. 2x3 partition studs, 12 feet long; 14 ps. 2x4 
gable studs, 12 feet long; 24 ps. 2x10 joist, 16 ft. long; 25 ps. 2x10 joist, 
18 ft. long; 22 ps. 2x10 joist, 14 ft. long; 16 ps. 2x10 joist, 12 ft. long; 
16 ps. 2x10 joist, 20 ft. long; 10 ps. 2x10 joist, 10 ft. long; 92 lineal ft. 
6x8 cross sills; 142 ps 2x10 attic joist, 14 ft. long; 90 ps. 2x6 rafters, 14 
ft. long; 50 ps. 2x6 rafters, 22 ft. long; 12 ps. 2x6 rafters, 8 ft. long; 
32 ps. 2x6 rafters, bay, 12 ft. long; 40 ps. 2x4 rafters, dormers, 8 ft. 
long; 16 ps. 2x4 rafters, porch, 8 ft. long; 20 ps. 2x6 rafters, deck, 12 
ft. long; 8 ps. 2x6 rafters, deck, 6 ft. long; 30 ps. 2x6 collar beams, 16 
ft. long; 20 ps. 2x6 collar beams, 18 ft. long; 10 ps. 6x8 sills on brick 
wall, 18 ft. long; 50 ps. 2x4 14 ft. long plates; 30,000 shingles, walls 
and roof; 2,000 ft. 1x6 surfaced roof-boards; 4,300 ft. 1x6 flooring 
(pine); 2,500 ft. 1x6 matched sheathing; 3,000 ft. 6-inch siding; 186 
ft. water-table, molding and labor; 186 ft. sill course, molding and 
labor; 200 ft. main cornice, molding and labor; 1,200 ft. 1x6 beaded 
ceiling, outside; 55 lineal ft. of wood roof cresting; 260 ft. tin roofing 
on deck, 10 cts. ; flashings, tin work, conductors, etc. ; frames, sash, 
labor and lumber, three dormers; cornice, moldings, panels, etc., front 
gable; all work and material to front portico; cornice, panel work, 
labor and material of 3 bay windows and cresting on same; rear porch 
complete, front and rear steps; panels and labor on octagon tower; 
triple frame in front gable and finish ; 6 interior fancy wood arches, 
complete ; one flight stairs to attic, labor, etc. ; 20 windows, frames, sash, 
labor, etc.; 13 doors, jambs, hardware, labor, etc.; fitting up sink and 
bath-room work; fitting up 6 closets, shelves and hooks, etc. ; 400 ft. 
of molded 1x9 base; corner-boards, moldings, etc., not before esti- 
mated; 670 yards 2-coat plastering; 25 squares of felt wall paper; 
painting, glass and glazing; plumbing, gas and sewerage; bells, 
tubes, etc. 



555 
DESIGN No. 40. 

KENWOOD COTTAGE. 

217 yards excavation; 15,000 brick in cellar wall; 5,600 brick in 
chinfineys above cellar wall; 858 yards of plastering, 2-coat; painting, 
glass, glazing, plumbing, gas, sewers, fixtures, etc. ; rough cast work 
on front of building; 12 pieces 6x8 sills on brick walls, 12 ft. long; 

15 pieces 2x10 joist, ist floor, 14 ft. long; 32 pieces 2x10 joist, ist floor, 
8 ft. long; 20 pieces 2x10 joist, istfloor, 12 ft. long; 26 pieces 2x10 joist, 
ist floor. 13 ft. long; 26 pieces 2x10 joist, 2d floor, 14 ft. long; 6 pieces 
2x10 j.oist, 2d floor, 15 ft. long; 8 pieces 2x10 joist, 2d floor, 10 ft. long; 

16 pieces 2x10 joist, 2d floor, 14 ft. long; 16 pieces 2x4 joist, ceiling, 
14 ft. long; 16 pieces 2x4 joist, ceiling, 10 ft. long; 14 pieces 2x4 joist, 
ceiling, 14 ft. long.; 26 pieces 2x4 joist, ceiling, 14 ft. long; 12 'pieces 
2x4 joist, ceiling, 8 ft. long; 14 pieces 2x4 joist, ceiling, 8 ft, long; 
16 pieces 2x4 joist, rafters, 30ft. long; 16 pieces 2x4 joist, rafters, 26ft. 
long; 6 pieces 2x4 joist, rafters, 12 ft. long; 24 pieces 2x4 joist, rafters, 
14 ft. long; 10 pieces 2x4 joist, rafters, 7 ft. long; 16 pieces 2x4 collar 
beams, 16 ft, long; 30 pieces 2x4 plates, 14 ft. long; 343 studs for 
partitions, 2x4, 12 ft. long; 10 studs for outside walls, 2x4, 14 ft. long; 
7ostudsfor outside walls, 2x4, 30 ft. average; 27 studsjbr outside walls, 
2x4, 12 ft. long; 27 studs for outside walls, 2x4, 18 ft. long; 2,500 ft. of 
1x6 fencing for sheathing, laid ; 1,800 ft. of 1x6 fencing for roofing, laid; 
17,000 pine, cedar or cypress shingles, laid; tin work, conductors, 
flashings, etc. ; 3,000ft. of 6 in. O.G. siding, laid; cornice, corner-boards, 
moldings, belts, water-tables, etc. ; 300 ft. 1x4 beaded and matched 
ceiling; front porch, outside steps, etc. ; 21 windows, sash, casings, 
etc. ; 550 ft. base-board and mold ; 24 doors, casings, hardware, etc. ; 
one flight stairs, oak rail, balusters, etc. ; 6 closets, shelves, hooks, 
strips, etc.; bath-room, store closet, kitchen sink, bells, cistern, etc.; 
2,800 ft. 1x6 flooring, C quality; 2,500 ft. of building paper, outside. 

HOW TO FIND THE POSITION OF THE SUN 
AT ANY TIME OF THE DAY. 
A simple means of determining the position of the sun at 
any time of the day is by placing the point of a knife-blade 
or sharp lead pencil on the thumb nail, which will cast a 
shadow directly from the sun, no matter how thick the snow 
or fog is. Try it. 

SHRINKAGE OF CASTINGS. 
In making allowance for shrinkage in casting, pattern 
makers understand that different shapes will shrink differently. 
The standard table of allowance for shrinkage in use in the 
best shops in the country is as follows : 
For Loam Castings 
" Green Sand Castings 
" Dry 

" Brass Castings 
" Copper " 
" Bismuth " 
" Tin 
« Zinc 
" Lead 



I-I2 


inch 


i:>er foot 


I-IO 


" 


" 


I-IO 


a 


" 


3-16 


i(. 


u 


3-i6 


a 


" 


5-32 


(( 


ii. 


1-4 


u 


11 


5-16 


u 


u 


5-16 


t( 


tt 



556 
POINTERS ON SUCCESS IN BUSINESS. 

Buy and sell for cash. 

Don't try to start in a big \vay. 

Morality is the basis of co-operation. 

Require all employes \vho handle funds to give bonds. 

Confidence in one another is the natural outgro-wth of 
sound morality. 

By doing a cash business every workingman's dollar is 
worth $i.io. 

Co-operation will insure a good article, and honest weights 
and measures. 

Beware of credit. He is the undertaker who buries all 
foolish co-operators. 

Never imagine your work is done. Eternal vigilance is 
the price of success. 

1-he primary object of co-operation is to improve the 
condition of producers. 

Don't make your by-laws too long or technical, and con> 
pel their close observance. 

The backbiter and slanderer is the most dangerous per- 
son you can get into a co-operative society. 

See to it that your manager makes statements quarterly, 
or as the by-laws provide, and be on hand to hear them, in- 
stead of staying away and grumbling. 

Keep clear of all political party manipulators ; long be- 
fore you fully understand the science of industrial co-opera- 
tion, you will know how to co-operate at the ballot box. 

Intelligence, sobriety, industry and economy are indis- 
pensable requisites of co-operators. Co-operation can do 
nothing for the lazy, immoral or reckless, unless they reform. 

Put your enteq^rise, no matter what it is, in the hands of 
a man who understands the business. If you attempt to learn 
co-operation and educate a manager m the conduct of the 
business at the same time, you vrill fail. 

When you select a manager let him rmi the busmess mitil 
he demonstrates his incapability. More enterprises fail 
through the meddling of a bad board in things they don't 
understand than from any other single cause. 

Take the bold step of gradually reducing stock. 

Seize the right time for modif}'ing your business \\-ith ad- 
vantage. 

Push your trade with energ}- and spirit, and by judicious 
advertising. 

Divide your risks as the insurance people do, so that in 
case of failure vou will rot he much hurt. 



557 

In stock-taking let nothing but real value appear in the 
balance sheet, and under rather than over value. 

Let the benefit to accrue from vigorous use of the prun- 
ing knife sustain you. It will come out all right in the end. 

As a rule you lose people and their custom when they get 
into your debt. If possible do a strictly cash business. 

Strike off all customers who will not steadily pay monthly. 
Keep strictly to this rule and you Avill have a healthy trade. 

The true limits of credit may be seen from the etymology 
of the word. It is a promise to pay something in the future. 

When you have commenced a business go thoroughly into it. 
Do not be ashamed of an honest business that is supporting 
you. Make it honorable. 

When an account is opened ask the parties to what extent 
they wish to go and keep them to the amount agreed upon, 
which, with their name, should be entered in the ledger. 

VARIOUS LOCATIONS OF THE ^CAPITAL OF 
THE UNITED STATES. 

The capital of the United States has been located at dif- 
ferent times at the following places: At Philadelphia 
from September c, 1774, until December, 1776; at 
Baltimore from December 20, 1776, to March, 1777; at 
Philadelphia from March 4, 1777, to September, 1777; at Lan- 
caster, Pa., from September 27, 1777, to September 30, 1777; 
at York, Pa., from September 30, 1777, to July, 1778; at 
Philadelphia from Jidy 2, 1 778, to June 30, 1783; at Prince- 
ton, N. J., June 30, 1783, to November 20, 1783; Annapo- 
lis, Md. , November 26, 1783, to November 30, 1784; 
Trenton from November, 1784, to January, 1785; New 
York from January 11, 1785, to 1790; then the seat of gov- 
£rnment was removed to Philadelphia, where it remained 
until 1800, since wdiich time it has l)een at Washington. 

GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES. 

The United States has a population of at least 62,000,000 
at this moment. This makes it second in this particular 
among the great civilized nations of the world. Keeping ni 
view the ratio of growth of the countries named between 
recent census ]^eriods, there are to-day about 88,000,000 
inhabitants in P^uro])ean Russia, 47,000,000 in Germany, 40,- 
000,000 in Austro-I fungary, 38,000,000 in France, 37,000,000 
in Great Britain and Irelanl, 30,000,000 in Italy, aucl 17,- 
CXX),ooo in Spain. 



55» 

The population of none of the other countries in Europe 
reaches 10,000,000 — Turkey's inhabitants outside of Asia 
aggregating scarcely half that figure. Russia alone of the 
great powers of Christendom exceeds the United States in 
population. Even Russia must soon be left far in the rear. 
July I, 1890, when the next national enumeration takes place, 
the United States will have 67,000,000 inhabitants. It will 
have 96,000,000 in the year 1900, and 124,000,000 in 19 10. 
This computation is based on the average growth of the 
country during the century. Employing a like basis for 
Russia, that nation before 1910 will have dropped to second 
place, the United States taking the first. 

Forty years ago the United States stood sixth in point of 
population among civilized nations of the globe and twenty 
years ago it stood fifth. Twenty years hence it will stand 
first. 

THE NEW FORTH BI^GE. 

The new railroad bridge over the Frith of Forth, in 
Scotland, to replace the one which went down with such 
appalling results a few years ago, is now near completion, and 
is described as one of the finest pieces of engineering in the 
world. The chief engineer of the structure gives the follow- 
ing "cold facts" regarding it: The total length of the 
viaduct will be 8,296 feet, or nearly i^ miles, and there are 
two spans 1,710 feet, two of 680 feet, fifteen of 168 feet 
girders, four of 57 feet, and three of 25 feet, being masonry 
arches. The clear headway for navigation will not be less 
than 150 feet for 500 feet in the center of the 1,710 feet spans. 
The extreme height of the structure is 361 feet above, and 
the extreme depths of foundation 91 feet below the level of 
high water. There will be about 53,000 tons of steel in the 
superstructure of the viaduct, and the material used through- 
out is open-hearth of Siemens-Martin steel. That used for 
parts subject to tension is specified to withstand a tensile 
stress of 30 to 33 tons to the square inch wdth an elongation 
in eight inches of not less than 20 per cent. ; that subject to 
compression only a tensile stress of 34 to 37 tons per square 
inch, with an elongation in eight inches of not less than 17 
per cent. 

Rociiester, N. Y., has an electric-light plant which sup- 
plies 1,100 arc and 1,025 incandescent lamps. The plant is 
said to be the largest in the world run by water power. 



1 



559 
"ANCIENT" WINTERS. 

In 401 the Black Sea was entirely frozen over. In 763 
not only the Black Sea, but the Straits of Dardanelle, were 
frozen over, the snow in some places rising 50 feet high. In 
822 the great rivers of Europe, the Danube, the Elbe, etc., 
were so hard frozen as to bear heavy wagons for a month. 
In 860 the Adriatic was frozen. In 991 everything was 
frozen 5 the crops totally failed and famine and pestilence 
closed the year. In 1707 most of the travelers in Germany 
were frozen to death on the roads. In ii34thePowas 
frozen from Cremona to the sea, the wine sacks were burst, 
and the trees split by the action of the frost with immense 
noise. In 1236 the Danube was frozen to the bottom, and 
remained long in that state. In 13 16 the crops wholly failed 
in Germany. Wheat, which some years before sold in 
England at 6s. the quarter, rose to £2. In 1308 the crops 
failed in Scotland, and such famine ensued that the poor were 
reduced to feed on grass, and many perished miserably in the 
fields. In 1368 the wine distributed to the soldiers was cut 
with hatchets. The successive winters of 1432-3-4 were 
uncommonly severe. In 1663 it was excessively cold. Most 
of the hollies were killed. Coaches drove along the Thames, 
the ice of which was 11 inches thick. In 1709 occurred very 
clod weather ; the frost penetrated three yards into the ground. 
In 1726 booths were erected on the Thames. In 1744 and 
1745 the strongest ale in P2ngland, exposed to the air, was 
covered in less than 15 minutes with ice an eighth of an inch 
thick. In 1808 and again in 181 2, the winters were remark-, 
ably cold. In 18 14 there was a fair on the frozen Thames. 

STRENGTH OF HORSES. 

It is stated that, if one horse can draw a certain load over 
a level road on iron rails, it will take one and two-thirds horses 
to draw the same load on asphalt, three and one-third horses 
to dra\^t on the best Belgian block, five on the ordinary 
Belgian^avement, seven on good cobblestones, thirteen on 
bad cobblestones, twenty on an ordinary earth road, and forty 
on a sandy road. 

THE LARGEST DAM IN THE WORLD. 

The largest dam in the world is in California. It will be 
7CX) feet long, 175 feet high, 175 feet thick at the base, 20 
feet thick at the top, and the reservoir thus formed will have 
a capacity of 32,000,000 gallons. 



xHE LARGEST PONTOON BRIDGE IN THE 
WORLD. 

The pontoon bridge over the Missouri River at Nebraska 
City is said to be the largest in the world. Its length across 
the navigable channel is 1,074 feet, while the back channel is 
traversed by a causeway i ,050 feet long, supported on cribs. 
The charter for this bridge has been held for twelve years, 
because of the difficulty of obtaining financial support for a 
project that appeared so impracticable. It is stated that the 
entire bridge was built in twenty-eight days, at a cost not 
exceeding $18,000, by Col. S. N. Stewart of Philadelphia, 
assisted by Gen. Lyman Banks, of Iowa. The draw is 
V-shaped, with the apex downstream. It is operated by the 
current and controlled by one man. The clear span is 528 
feet, the largest in the world. The bridge was completed in 
August, and is doing good service. It will be removed 
during the ice season. 

THEj BANK OF ENGLAND DOORS. 

The Bank of England doors are now so finely balanced 
that a clerk, by pressing a knob under his desk, can close the 
outer doors instantly, and they cannot be opened again except 
by special process. This is done to prevent the daring and 
ingenious unemployed of the metropolis from robbing the 
bank. The bullion departments of this and other banks are 
nightly submerged several feet in water by the action of the 
machinery. In some banks the bullion department is con- 
nected with the manager's sleeping room, and an entrance 
cannot be effected without shooting a bolt in the dormitory, 
which in turn sets in motion an alarm. If a visitor, during 
the day, should happen to knock off one from a pile of half 
sovereigns the whole pile would disappear, a pool of water 
taking its place. 

NEW SUBSTITUTE FOR LEATHE]^ 

Dr. George Thenius, in Vienna, has a process for the 
manufacture of artificial leather from red beechwood. The 
best wood for the purpose is taken from fifty to sixty years old 
trees, cut in the Spring, and must be w^orked up immediately, 
bark peeled off, steamed, treated with chemicals in a kettle 
under pressure, and then exposed to several more operations, 
which the inventor does not mention, as he wants to have 
them patented. 

From the prepared wood strong and thin pieces are made 



56i 

by means of heavy pressure. The inventor states that a solid 
sole leather can be obtained, which he claims is superior to 
the animal leather in firmness and durability, and can be 
worked up in the same way as animal leather, nailed and 
sewed. We do not believe that the leather industry needs to 
^ar the artificial product. 

THE USELESSNESS OF LIGHTNING RODS. 

The uselessness of the lightning rod is becoming so gen- 
erally understood that the agents find their vocation a trying 
one. Fewer and fewer rods are manufactured each year, and 
" the day will come when a lightning rod on a house will be 
regarded in the same light as a horseshoe over a man's 
door. 

THE WELLAND CANAL. 

The enlarged Welland Canal is regarded as one of the 
grandest exhibitions of engineering skill in the world. The 
water level of Lake Erie is over 300 feet higher than that of 
Lake Ontario, and this canal has been built to allow loaded 
ships to pass from one lake to the other. For this passage 
28 miles of canal and 26 locks are required. The small village 
of Port Coiborne stands at the entrance of the canal. The 
first lock is bi^ilt near the entrance, to keep back the swash- 
ing sea, after which comes a stretch of 14 miles through a 
farming country to the second lock, after which the locks are 
located about as thick as possible until Lake Ontario is 
reached. The greater part of the descent is in the upper 
half mile of the route, and it takes about 13 hours to get 
through the canal with no hindrances. 

A VALUABLE POINT FOR PAPER-MAKERS. 
Iron is apt to discolor paper by rusting after it has been 
abraded from the paper-making machinery. Magnetism has, 
therefore, been called in by a German manufacturer to clear 
away the iron specks. A series of magnets are arranged in 
the form of a comb and hung across the stream of pulp and 
water, whict^^^ in passing the magnetic teeth of the comb, 
delivers up the iron particles. 

HOW TO DRIVE A HOLE THROUGH GLASS. 

]^ drilling glass, stick a piece of stiff clay or putty on the 
part where you wish to make the hole. Make a hole in the 
putty the size you want the hole, reaching to the glass, of 
course. Into this hole pour a little molten lead, wlien, unless 
it is very thick glass, the j^iece will immediately drop out. 



562 

THE LARGEST LOCK IX THE WORLD. 

The Sault Ste. Marie canal has the second largest lock in 
the world. It is built of solid masonry, 560 feet long, 80 
feet wide, with walls 40 feet high, the lift 18 feet, and the 
depth of the water in the basin 16 feet. This lock belongs 
to the United States Government and cost $3,ocx),ocx), and 
will accommodate four at a time of the largest vessels ever 
brought to these waters. A new and still larger lock, to 
cost $5,000,000, is now being constructed. The canal now 
has a larger daily traffic than the great Suez canal. 

HOW GAMBOGE IS PREPARED. 

Gamboge is a gum, and an average gamboge tree is said 
to }deld annually sufficient to fill three bamboo cylinders, 
each about 18 to 20 inches long and 1% inches in diameter. 
It takes about a month to fill a cylinder. When full the 
bamboo is rotated over a fire to allow the moisture to escape 
and the gum to harden sufficiently to admit of being 
removed. 

A human hair is 10,000 times larger than a spider's thread. 

The taxable valuation of New York city, real and per- 
sonal property, for 1888, was $1,553,442,431.66. 

At Erie, Pa., a well has been bored 3,500 feet. The 
Schladeback boring was down to 4,515 feet. 

A hammer for a pile-driver, made at Jacksonville, recently? 
was the largest ever cast in Florida. It weighed 2,350 
pounds. 

Cavendish, in 1766, discovered hydrogen, and between 
1774 and 1779 Priestley discovered oxygen, azote and nitrous 
gas. 

A New York dealer says that 20,000,000 pounds of rubber 
comes to this country every year from Borneo, Africa, and 
Para, South America. 

The Chinese language is spoken by 400,000,000 persons; 
Hindostani by upward of 100,000,000 ; English by more 
than 100,000,000; Russian by more than 70,000,000; Ger- 
man by 58,000,000; Spanish by 48,000,000, and French by 
only 40,000,000. 



5^3 
SEALS OF THE VARIOUS EXECUTIVE DEPART- 
MENTS OF THE UNITED STATES GOVERN- 
MENT. 

The great seal of the United States is nearly as old as the. 
Union, being now in its 107th year as a device. When, on 
July 4, 1776, the continental Congress declared the ! English 
American colonies to be free and independent States, they 
appointed a committee to report a device for a seal, the 
emblem of sovereignty. That committee and others, from 
time to time, presented misatisfactory devices. Finally, in 
the spring of 1782, Charles Thomson, the secretary of Con- 
gress, gave to that body a device largely suggested to John 




FIRST GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Adams, then United States minister to the court of 
Great Britain, by Sir John Prestwich, an eminent 
English antiquary. The suggestion was made the basis of 
a design adopted by Congress June 20, 1782, and which is still 
the device of the great seal of our republic. It is com- 
posed, as the sketch shows, of a spread-eagle, the 
emblem of strength, bearing on its breast an escutcheon with 
thirteen stripes, alternate red and white, like the national 
flag. In its right talon the eagle holds an olive branch, the 
emblem of peace, and in its left thirteen arrows, emblems of 
the thirteen States ready for war, should it be necessary. 



5^4 

In its beak is a ribbon bearing the legend " E Pluribxis 
Unum" — " many in one" — many States make one Nation. 
Over the head of the eagle is a golden light breaking through 
a cloud surrounding thirteen stars, forming a constellation 
on a blue field. 

At this time, and for many years after, there was a re- 
verse seal used, old documents showing sides, the obverse 
above and the reverse as a pendant. The device of the lat- 
ter showed an unfinished pyramid, emblematic of the unfin- 
ished republic, the building of which — the increase of States 
and Territories — is still going on. In the zenith is an all- 
seeing eye, surrounded by rays of light, and over this eye the 
words, " Annuit Ceptis. " On the base of the pyramid, in 




SEAL OF THE STATE DEPARTMENT. 

Roman numerals, is the date 1776, and below the Avords 
" Xovus Ordo Seclorum " — a new order for all ages. 

Before the adoption of the great seal the continental Con- 
gress ordered a small one for the official use of their Presi- 
dent for the time being. It was elliptical in shape and 
about an inch long by three-quarters of an inch w4de. 
Within a raised border was a circlet of clouds, A^dth a clear 
space within, in which were seen thirteen stars. At a point 
in the clouds was the national motto, " E Pluribus Unum. " 



565 

Of all the cabinet bureaus that of the State Department 
is [the oldest. On November 29, 1775, Congress resolved 
" that a committee of five be appointed for the sole purpose 
of corresponding with our friends in Great Britain, Ireland 
and other parts of the world, and that they lay their corre- 
spondence before Congress when directed, and that all ex- 
penses that might arise by carrying on such correspondence 
and for* the payment of such agents as the committee might 
send on this service should be defrayed by this Congress.'* 
This was the germ of our State Department and the initial 
Step in our foreign diplomacy. The members chosen were 




SEAL OF THE TREASURY DEPARTMENT. 

Benjamin Harrison, Dr. Franklin, Thomas Johnson, John 
Dickinson and John Jay. Following the committee of cor- 
respondence came the Department of Foreign Affairs in 1781, 
and then came the present State Department, or Department 
of State, as its official title reads, managed by the Secretary 
of State and two assistant secretaries. -> 

The seal device embraces a spread-eagle, with oliv 
branch and sheaf of arrows in either claw, holding in its beak 
a scroll on which are the words " E Pluribus Unum," sur- 
rounded by an irregular constellation of thirteen stars, and 



S66 

bearing on its breast the national shield. The words 
" Department of State " occupy the upper two-thirds of the 
circle forming the seal, the lower third being taken up with 
an oak wreath. 

The seal of the Treasury Department is richly emblematical. 
The central portion consists of a shield, the upper quarter 
bearing a pair of scales, and the lower quarter a key, divided 
by a bar on which are set the thirteen historical stars. 
Around this is a circle bearing the Latin inscription " Thesaur 
Amer Septent Sigil," divided by stars, and between the band 
and the shield are sprays of flowers. The wafer on which 
the seal is impressed is serrated at the edges with light pro- 
jections. The department using this seal is in charge of the 
Secretary of the Treasury and two assistant secretaries. 

The War Department is really the board of war, and is an 
institution that dates back to the days of the Revolution. On 




SEAL OF THE BOARD OF WAR. 

June 13, 1776, the Congress appointed John Adams, Roger 
Sherman, Benjamin Harrison, James Wilson and John 
Rutledge, commissioners constituting a " board of war and 
ordnance," and appointed Richard Peters their secretary. 
This was the germ of the war department of our government. 
It had a general supervision of all military affairs. The 
secretary and clerks were required to take an oath of secrecy 
before entering upon their duties, and the salaries, it may be 



567 

interesting to add, were $800 a year for the secretary, and 
$226.66 for the clerks. 

In 1778 another organization of the board occurred, when 
the seal of the department was fixed. It shows a military 
trophy of flags, 'armor and cannon, the central pike being sur- 
mounted by a cap of liberty, around which is coiled a rattle- 
snake, a reptile which is popularly supposed not to strke 
until it has given warning. At the foot of the trophy is the 
date in Roman figures, 1778, while the legend about the seal 
reads : " Board of War and Ordnance, United States of 
America." In the new organization of the government in 
1781, the Congress resolved to create a Secretary of War, 
and General Lincoln was chosen, his salary being fixed at 
$5,000 a year. After that, military affairs were managed by 




SEAL OF THE INTERIOR DEPARTMENT. 

a jboard of war, until the organization of the government 
under the national constitution, when they were placed 
under the supreme control of a Secretary of War and one 
regular assistant. 

The Navy Department was founded October 13, 1775, 
when Silas Deane, John Langdon and Christopher Glasden 
were appointed by the Congress as a committee to direct 
naval affairs. Stephen Hopkins, Joseph Hewes, Richard 
Henry Lee and John Adams were added, October 30, to the 



568 

/^ommittee. The body was at first styled the " Marine Com- 
mittee," and, on December i, it was so modeled as to include 
one member from each colony represented in the Congress. 
Their lack of professional knowledge caused many and vexa- 
tious mistakes, and Congress finally resolved to select three 
persons, well skilled in marine affairs, to execute the business 
intrusted to the general committee. The experts constituted 
what was called "the continental na\y board, or board of assist- 
ants of the marine committee, " which remained in active oper- 
ation until the autumn of I J 79, when " a board of admiralty " 
was established, composed of three commissioners not mem- 
bers of Congress, and two members of that body. 




SEAL OF THE POSTOFFICE DEPARTMENT. 

In 17S7 another change took place, when Gen. Alexander 
McDougall, of New York, was appointed secretary of the 
marine. A few months afterward Robert Morris, the distin- 
guished financier of the Revolution, was appointed a general 
"agent of marine," and an admiralty seal was adopted com- 
posed of an escutcheon with a che\Ton of stripes alternate 
red and white, an anchor below and a ship under full sail as 
a crest. With the exception of the eagle, which has replaced 
the shield, the stamp is still the same. The present Navy De- 
partment, which was established in 179S, is in charge of the 
Secretary of the Na\w, and its functions are discharged by the 
Secretary and one assistant secretary and eight bureaus. 



5^9 

The Interior Department was established in the spring of 
1849, ^"^ w^s the first establishment of a new branch of the 
government since 1798, when, as has been shown, the Navy- 
department as it now exists was organized. The chief of this 
department is called the Secretary of the Interior, and is a 
cabinet officer. The first incumbent of the office was Thomas 
Ewing, of Ohio, appointed by President Taylor. The device 
of the seal of the Interior Department is an eagle just ready 
to soar, resting on a sheaf of grain, with arrows and an olive 
branch in its talons and over it the words " Department of the 
Interior." 




SEAL OF attorney-general's DEPARTMENT. 

The first parliamentary act for the establishment of a 
postoffice in the English American colonies was passed in 
April, 1692, when a royal patent was granted to Thomas 
Neale for that purpose. He was to transport letters and 
packets " at such rates as the planters should agree to give." 
Neale's patent expired in 17 10, when parliament extended 
the English postal system to the colonies. The chief office 
was established in New York, to which letters were con- 
veyed by regular packets across the Atlantic. The rates 
were fixed and the postriders had certain privileges of travel. 
In 1753 ^^"- Franklin was appointed deputy postmaster gen- 
eral for the colonies It was a lucrative office, and he held it 



570 

until 1774, when he was dismissed because of his active sym- 
pathy with the colonists. 

Very soon after the commencement of the first session of 
the first National Congress, Ebenezer Hazard and the then 
Postmaster General, suggested (July 17, 1789) the importance 
of a reorganization of the postoffice department, and a bill for 
the temporary establishment of the general postofiicewas soon 
afterward passed. The subject was brought up in Congress 
from time to time until 1792, when the present system in its 
general features was adopted. At present the department is 
under the direction and management of the Postmaster- 
General and three assistant postmasters-general. The seal 
presents the device of a pony-express at the conventional 
gallop. 

The head of the Attorney-General's Department was first 
made a cabinet officer in 1849. The full title of the depart- 
ment is the Attorney-General's Department, or Department 
of Justice. The seal, which is the best designed of the whole 
group, in the judgment of the San Francisco Chronicle, is the 
last presented in the accompanying sketches. 

HOW TO RENDER IRON OR STEEL INCOR. 
RODIBLE. 



The following method for burnishing iron and steel by 
means of the electric current was communicated by A. de 
Meritens at a meeting of the International Electric Society in 
Paris. The layer of oxide on the surface of the metal is ob- 
tained by placing the same as anode in a bath of common or 
distilled water. The sides of the vessel holding the liquid, 
or a piece of iron, copper or carbon, are used as cathode. 
The temperature of the water is kept at 160 to 175 degrees 
F. The electromotive force must be just strong enough to 
decompose the water, as a current which is too strong gives a 
dusty layer which is not permanent. Under the action of the 
oxygen liberating at the anode, a layer of a black oxide 
(Fe304) forms on the metal. This layer can be easily pol- 
ished, steel giving the best results, w^hile on cast and rod 
iron a more dusty layer is obtained, though the use of dis- 
tilled water makes the polish permanent. 

To mark on tin boxes, a correspondent of the New Idea 
directs : " Rub the tin surface well with an ordinary lead- 
pencil rubber, and write directly on the box with good ink in 
your best style. " 



571 
THE STARS AND STRIPES. 

HOW THE NATIONAL EMBLEM WAS ADOPTED. 

Before the inspiring words of Francis Scott Key were 

fiven to the world our American people carried various 
esigns and colors of flags, banners and emblems. Now that 
the addition of four new States adds four stars to the national 
emblem, a word about the origin of the American stars and 
stripes wall not be uninteresting reading. In June, 1777, the 
national ensign was adopted. That there was an emblem 




carried at the battle of Bunker Hill we know not, says the 
Kansas City Times, except from what one writer says : 
" The banners carried were as varied as the troops were 
motley." In the rotunda at Washington there is a painting 
of the American flag by Trumbull. It is a red flag with a 



/ 



572 

white canton bearing a gi*een pine tree. One of the earlier 
banners bore the inscription, "He who brought us here will 
sustain us " on one side, while on the other was " An appeal 
to Heaven." Another design was a blue ground with one 
corner quartered by the red cross of St. George, in one section 
of which was a pine tree. 

On July i8, 1775, Washington was presented with a 
standard bearing the motto : " An Appeal to Heaven." The 




same year a similar design was used for a revolutionary flag, 
with the addition of a pine tree in the middle of a white 
ground. The Massachusetts government adopted this, and it 
became the emblem of the American ships. The different 
sections of the country had different designs ; the first one 
that appeared in the south was that of Col. Moultrie. It was 



573 

a blue flag with a white crescent in the upper left-hand corner. 
Early the following year a similar flag with the word " Liberty " 
inscribed upon it was raised above Fort Moultrie. 

The colors of the American fleet in 1776 were the rattle- 
snake banner — thirteen stripes with a rattlesnake and the 
words '' Don't tread on me." Some of the commanders on 
the sea adopted banners ; that of Paul Jones consisted of 
thirteen stripes, alternate red and blue. The old banner of 
the French and Indian war was again used in 1775. This 
was a white flag with a rattlesnake cut into parts, represent- 
ing the colonies, and the words " Unite or die. " The next 
design was that of Col. Gadsen, which was presented to con- 
gress on February 8, 1776. It was a yellow flag with a rattle- 
snake in the middle, coiled ready to strike. This also bore 
the words of warning "Don't tread on me." Then came 
the union jack, the work of a committee appointed to pre- 
pare a design to be used on the ships of a fleet that was being 
fitted out. This was at the close of the year 1775. The new 
flag was hoisted at the Cambridge camp January 2. On 
August 27, 1776, at the battle of Long Island, the British 
captured a small red fl.ag with the motto "Liberty." This 
was another of the many designs that had been originated 
and adopted. The whole country was anxious to be under 
the inspiring influences of a national banner, and it was only 
necessary for some design to be adopted as the emblem of 
the new world for all these various mottoes, etc., to at once 
give way. The last design before the present one was 
adopted was a white ground with a crossed sword and staff, 
the staff bearing a liberty cap and the motto : " Liberty or 
death. " On June 14, 1777, congress resolved " That the flag 
of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes of alternate 
red and white ; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a 
blue field, representing a new constellation." At once this 
new flag was hoisted on land and sea, and the vast number of 
mottoes, banners, etc., disappeared and the remainder of the 
war was fought under the stars and Istripes, and every loyal 
heart found inspiration in : 

The red as of the rosy morn 

When brightest, clearest days^are born. 

And of the lily fair and white 

When dipped in dews of summer night. 

The blue of clear and peaceful sky| 

When not a cloud goes floating by. 

The stars of brightest glittering 

All in that noble offering. 

This emblem, then, shall ever be 

The symbol of sweet liberty. . 



574 



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BELL TIME ON SHIPBOARD. 



Time, A, M. 

1 Bell 12.30 

2 Bells 1. 00 



a 



1.30 
2.00 
2.30 
3.00 

3-30 
4.00 



Time, A. M. 



Time, A. M. 



1 Bell 4.301 Bell . 

2 Bells '^.002 Bells. 

3 " 

4 " 



Time, P. M. 

1 Bell 12.30 

2 Bells 1. 00 

3 " .... 



1.30 
2.00 
2.30 
3.00 

3-30 
4.00 



5.00 

5-30 
6.00 
6.30 
7.00 

7-30 
8.00 



8.30 
9.00 

9-30 
10.00 
10.30 
11.00 
11.30 
.Noon 



Time, P. M. 
Bell.... 
Bells. . . 



Time, P. M. 
4.30'! Bell 8.30 



Bell.. 
Bells. 



5.00 

5.30 
6.00 
6.30 
7.00 

7.30 
8.00 



2 Bells. 
3 

4 



9.00 
. . . 9.30 
. .. 10.00 
. . . 10.30 
. . . 11.00 
... 11.30 
. Midnight 



HOW TO DETECT GAS LEAKAGE. 

In order to detect gas leakage, Dr. Bunte, in the 
Canadia7z Magazine of Science^ suggests the use of paper 
dipped in palladium chloride solution. Such paper changes 
its color in presence of gas coming from the leaks imper- 
ceptible by the odor, and which produce no effect upon the 
earth covering the pipes. Dr. Bunte suggests the following 
method of practically applying the test to street mains : 
Above the pipes are excavated, at intervals of two or three 
yards, holes twelve to sixteen inches deep, corresponding to 
the joints and sleeves. In each opening is placed an iron 
tube, half an inch in diameter, within which is a glass tube, 
containing a roll of the test paper. The air from about the 
main enters the iron tube, and the trace of gas which may be 
present reveals itself by coloring the paper brown or black, 
according to the quantity. If, after ten or twenty minutes, 
the paper is still white, it may be certainly concluded that at 
the pomt tested there is not the smallest escape of gas. 
Various authorities who have experimented with Bunte's 
method certify to its efficacy. 



